Regional trends
Although the application of broad-scale regional analyses are not unproblematic, not least because they likely disguise more subtle patterns of inter- and intra-regional variation, neglecting the subtleties of environmental context and spatial variation within sites, for example, they do serve to illustrate wider patterns in military procurement strategy. Currently, the number of regional studies into the nature of Roman military food provisioning within the north-west provinces is limited; however, there is evidence to suggest that broader scale analyses are increasingly being adopted (Campbell and Hammon in prep.; Cavallo et al. this volume; Livarda in prep).
While clear regional differences in the proportions of different cereal crops have been identified on Roman settlements within the north-west provinces (Van der Veen 1988: 363), comparison of the archaeobotanical evidence from military settlements in Scotland, Wales, northern England and Germany has revealed remarkable conformity in the range of staple plant foods consumed (Dickson and Dickson 1988; Dickson 1989). Previous archaeobotanical and palynological research has demonstrated that the primary staple crops of the Roman north-west provinces were two glume wheats (emmer: Triticum dicoccum and spelt: Triticum spelta), a free-threshing wheat (bread wheat: Triticum aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), with oats (Avena sativa) and rye (Secale cereale) of lesser significance (e.g. Cool 2006: 69â71; Dark 1999).
Such broad conformity is supported to a certain extent by the analysis of the relative proportions of the three major domestic mammals: cattle, sheep and pig (King 2001: 220). This is a diet that consisted mostly of beef, with a greater emphasis on mutton on British sites, and pork in Germany, possibly reflecting pre-conquest patterns of food consumption and the origins of the soldiers (King 2001; Mattingly 2006: 222). A combination of differences between military and non-military sites (contra Davies 1971: 136) and the broad similarity of the military diet in the north-west provinces had led King (2001: 220) to conclude that âfor the most partâŠthe army, particularly the legions, would have been able to adopt a command economy, and exercise dietary preferencesâ. Despite Kingâs observation that legionary garrisons may have had some privileges regarding the supply of resources, there has been a tendency for sites to be classified on a rather simple basis as âmilitaryâ or âcivilianâ. Many forts saw changes in their garrisons, particularly between initial campaigns of invasion and conquest that often featured legionary forces in considerable strength, and subsequent âpeace-keepingâ occupation which often made comprehensive use of auxiliary forces. Many of the forts in the north-west provinces had relatively short-lived or small-scale legionary garrisons, and these troop movements may be reflected in changes in food supply. A further complication concerns the relationship between military establishments such as forts and fortresses and urban settlements. The Roman military forces moved relatively swiftly through parts of the north-west provinces, such as southern and eastern England. Here, urban settlements developed that can be regarded as civilian towns (Burnham and Wacher 1990; Wacher 1995) and considerations of how the Roman army was supplied is simplified by the fact that it is possible to consider rural settlements, villas, towns and forts (cf. King 1999a) as relatively discrete entities, although this not to completely deny the presence of military personnel at such sites (e.g. Bishop 1991; Miles et al. 2007: 348). In the frontier provinces, however, such as northern England and the lower Rhine, the military occupation persisted for centuries, and the relationship of the forts to the vici that developed immediately outside their gates is still unclear, with recent investigations highlighting the interdependence of the sites, and the possibilities that some civilians lived in the forts and that some retired soldiers lived in the vici (James 2006; Scheidel 1996).
One common pattern seen on many military sites in the north-west provinces is higher proportions of pig bones, compared with neighbouring rural sites (e.g. Alchester: Thomas this volume; Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Lauwerier 1988; Oedenburg, France: Schibler et al. 2005). It is of course essential to consider the norms for each area that is being investigated: in Italy, a âhighâ proportion of pig bones might comprise over 60%, whereas in Britain a proportion greater than 20% might be considered unusually high (King 1999b). That said, the consumption of relatively larger quantities of pork meat has often been viewed as characteristic of highly âromanisedâ diets, because pig is often the most abundant domestic mammal on sites in western central Italy (King 1999b, 2001; Mackinnon 2004). However, there are other explanations which could account for their prevalence on military sites. For example, the fecundity and large litter size of pigs has been cited as a factor that may have contributed to their prevalence on early military sites, in addition to its suitability for preservation (Cavallo et al. this volume; Grant 2004: 373; Thomas this volume), an idea supported by the sharp decline in the proportions of pig bones seen at some military sites in later periods (Grant 1989: 137; King 2001: 217â8). In some localities the high proportions of pigs may reflect environmental factors (e.g. Luff 1982: 248) and/or ear...