Talking, Listening, and Teaching

A Guide to Classroom Communication

Thomas S. C. Farrell

• Verlag: Skyhorse
• Jahr: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781510733053
• Thema: Éducation
• Thema: Gestion de la salle de classe

Talking, Listening, and Teaching demonstrates how important it is for teachers to understand and monitor classroom communication patterns and resolve problems that may hamper students' learning. Using examples from real classrooms, the author explains

• How classroom talk is different from communication outside the classroom
• How to gather and analyze data about classroom talk
• What type of questioning generates good discussions
• Why and how to give feedback to students
• How nonverbal communication impacts the classroom
• 
  This insightful guide to classroom communication, featuring provocative "Thinking About Your Own Classroom" questions, is ideal for teacher study groups and benefits educators who wish to effectively manage this important aspect of teaching and learning.

CHAPTER ONE

Talking, Listening, Teaching

Understanding Classroom Communication

People communicate in various formal and informal settings, from making a presentation in a business meeting to chatting at a cocktail party. These settings are familiar to us, and we think we know how to communicate in both situations; however, we also encounter other settings in which we must communicate in a more ritualized manner, such as in a court of law or in a classroom. Ah! But you say, since we all went to school, we are all familiar with classrooms and know how to communicate in them. That is the problem for teachers: we teachers take this knowledge of communicating in classrooms for granted and assume all children who enter our classrooms also know how to communicate effectively. We also assume that, as teachers, our communications in our classes are always clear and foster an effective learning environment. I beg to differ, and that is why I wrote this book on classroom communication. To illustrate, let’s consider a class where I observed and transcribed a classroom communication.

MARY’S CLASS: AN ILLUSTRATION

Mary, a fifth-grade teacher, is about to begin her class. What follows is the opening (the first 21 turns) of the reading lesson in which she is trying to get the students ready for the main topic: reading fantasy books.

Turns
1: Mary:	OK, remember we were talking about some of the characters you can find in fantasy books. OK, I’m sure some of you have read, OK. Fantasy books which include … can you name me some of the characters you can find in fantasy books or stories? Anyone?
2: Student 1:	Witch.
3: Mary:	A witch. Very good.
4: Student 2:	Red Riding Hood.
5: Mary:	Is Red Riding Hood a fantasy? Red Riding Hood is a …
6: Student 2:	Fairy tale.
7: Mary:	Very good. Red Riding Hood is a fairy tale. We are talking about witches, OK.
8: Student 3:	Dragon.
9: Mary:	Dragon. Very good.
10: Student 4:	Goblin.
11: Mary:	Goblin. Yes.
12: Student 5:	Elf.
13: Mary:	Elf and dwarf? Excellent! Anyone else know anymore?
14: Student 6:	Knights.
15: Mary:	Knights! Yes! Right, OK now, look at the pictures on page 80. Today, we are going to learn some words, OK, that we can find in reading books. What words can you see? Please write them on the page. [Students work alone.] [Mary notices that John is not doing anything, so Mary goes to his desk.]
16: Mary:	Is everything OK? Is anything the matter?
17: John:	[Silence]
18: Mary:	You aren’t doing your work. Are you sick?
19: John:	[Silence]
20: Mary:	If you do not join in, I will have to ask you to stay after class.
21: John:	[John gets up and leaves the class.]

[After class, Mary reports John to the vice-principal.]

The first 15 turns of this episode show us that the lesson was probably a typical one for Mary in terms of encouraging her students to read on their own during class time. However, around Turn 11 (although this is not indicated in the transcript until after Turn 15), she noticed that one of her students, John, an African-American student, was not reacting to any of her questions and was just sitting silently at his desk with his arms folded. After Turn 15, when all the students started to work alone, Mary went over to John. After this incident (when John walked out), Mary reported John to the viceprincipal and said that he had disrupted her class and should be disciplined. In fact, Mary demanded that the vice-principal talk to John’s parents because this was not the first time John had remained silent and unwilling to answer her questions. Many teachers may sympathize with Mary because, on the surface, it can be perceived that John was not a willing participant in her class and was not willing to communicate directly with her when she asked him questions. Mary even told the vice-principal that John was one of the very few students in her class who acted like this; he also happened to be the only African-American in her class.

Behind the Scene: The Real Story

When we examine all the issues in this example, we see that there is much more here than meets the eye in terms of what we take for granted in our classroom communication. One of the first issues we must consider here is that John is the only African-American student in Mary’s class. It may be the norm in John’s cultural background (African-American) not to respond to “wh” questions, and silence may be appropriate when being spoken to by an adult. In other words, John’s unwillingness to talk during classroom events may have been a direct result of the different verbal conventions in his home community and those of the school community. John is from a cultural background that suggests that communication is more implied than direct and where explicit verbal messages are not necessary for understanding. Mary is from a cultural background where groups require communication to be detailed and explicit, and as such, Mary became frustrated with John because his communication is indirect and even circular. What this example shows is that the interpersonal relationship between the teacher and the student has an impact (dramatic in this case) on what happens in the classroom and that differences in and a lack of awareness of different communication styles can lead to misunderstandings. As Powell and Caseau (2004) suggested, “The further students depart from these communication conventions, the more at risk they become” (p. 47).

Thus, teachers must realize that many communities differ from the ways of talking expected in the school, and they must be ready to make allowances for such differences. When these differences are noticed, teachers should try to maximize their students’ knowledge and uses of language in the classroom. For example, it would have been helpful for Mary to know about Heath’s (1983) study of the different ways of talking and interacting in an African-American community and in two other communities, one of which included a mostly white, middle-class, school-oriented community (see Chapter 2). Mary would have learned that in the African-American community (called Trackton), parents did not use questioning as a mode of interaction with children at home and children were not expected to be information givers or even conversation partners for adults. So when teachers from a European-American background (like Mary) asked questions of their classes that they knew the answer to (labeled display questions—see Chapter 5 for more information), the African- American students did not respond because they had never heard that mode of interaction at home. Of course, the teachers perceived that the students from Trackton were being uncooperative, and even unwilling to participate in classroom activities, and gave them lower grades. Heath and her researchers decided to intervene and tried to make the teachers aware of their question types and their effect on the African-American students; they tried to get them to ask more openended questions that the students would have been more comfortable answering. Then they attempted to show and explain to the African- American students the types of questions the European-American teachers used (from a tape recording) so that they could understand them better. In this way, both sides of the communication desk (the teacher and the students, who may have different home communication conventions) can come to a greater understanding of what it means to be communicatively competent in each lesson (see Chapter 2 for more discussion on classroom communicative competence). Teachers tend to have idealized forms (or schemata) of classroom communicative competence, or the ways students should participate in their classes, but we should realize that children may not have built up these same schemata—they tend to develop gradually and, as such, must be learned so all students can participate fully in our classes. In other words, clear and consistent lessons may allow all students to attend to lesson content more than lesson procedure and may decrease the stress they experience as they adapt to this new environment. When we really examine the communication and interaction patterns in Mary’s class, we can understand how an awareness of the way classroom communication is set up and develops can help teachers better facilitate learning in their classes. This chapter outlines some principles of communication, the nature of classroom communication, and what makes it unique. The chapter also offers a framework for novice and experienced teachers to help them reflect on and manage classroom communication and interaction in today’s complex classrooms.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

To begin, we need to define the terms that will form the basis of our discussion. The term communication is used frequently in modern times, but what do we actually mean by this term? There are more than 126 different definitions of communication (Civikly, 1992), and of course, this has resulted in a certain amount of confusion as to the meaning of this term. For example, communication can mean a process of interaction, a discipline of study, or even an electronic media system. However, for the purposes of this book, we will be looking at communication as a process; that is, the process of communication in the classroom that involves a “sorting, selecting, and sending of symbols in such a way as to help a listener find in his or her own mind a meaning or response similar to that intended by the communicator” (Ross, 1978, p. 21).

A useful starting point for teachers who are interested in reflecting on classroom communication patterns is this list of six principles of communication (adapted from Civikly, 1992):

1. Communication is a process in constant change. This first principle points out that communication is changing all the time.

2. Communication is a system of rules. Even though communication is constantly changing, it also has rules (which differ depending on the context—see Principle 6 below) that are usually only noticed when they are violated.

3. Communication messages are both verbal and nonverbal. Whenever we speak, we are sending both a verbal and a nonverbal message. Part of communication in classrooms is nonverbal, for the way we express our verbal message often tells a listener how to interpret it. Abercrombie (1968) correctly pointed out: “We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our entire bodies. Conversation consists of much more than a simple interchange of spoken words” (p. 55). Nonverbal communication in the classroom will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.

4. Communication is transactional. As the title of this book (and this chapter) suggests, when we are teaching and talking, we are also trying to understand our students’ behaviors, facial expressions, and speech, just as they are also listening to us and trying to understand our actions and reactions.

5. The communication process involves mutual influence. Following from the transactional view of communication (see Principle 4), we note that how others are responding to us affects how we act and react. We may adjust our teac...