Marine Ecosystems

Diversity and Functions

André Monaco, Patrick Prouzet, André Monaco, Patrick Prouzet

• Verlag: Wiley-ISTE
• Jahr: 2015
• ISBN:
  9781119232469
• Auflage: 1
• Thema: Physical Sciences
• Thema: Oceanography

In a perspective of sustainable management, the balance between ecological dynamics, social and economic are now at the heart of ecological modeling and environmental strategies screenwriting.

Diversity and marine ecosystems function illustrates biodiversity, habitat diversity, structures and food webs in various oceans of the world and systems: pelagic and benthic ecosystems, coral reefs and seagrass beds, oasis of hydrothermal vents ridges or areas rich upwelling.

Appropriate observation methods, long-term monitoring and modeling reveal the complexity of systems, trophic interactions and spatiotemporal dynamics. The ecosystem approach is a prerequisite to assess the state of these systems, their living resources and ecological services involved in local and global environmental changes.

1
Marine Biosphere, Carbonate Systems and the Carbon Cycle

1.1. Introduction

It is now accepted that the recent increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere is a consequence of human activities, in particular the combustion of fossil fuels and the production of cement. Approximately 30% of CO₂ emissions are absorbed by the ocean, which clearly indicates the importance of the sea in the regulation of the level of atmospheric CO₂. Once absorbed by the ocean, this carbon becomes an important parameter in biogeochemical cycles.

For several million years, the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere has shown cyclic variations directly linked to global changes in volume. These changes occur at regular intervals of 100,000, 40,000 and 23,000 years (Figure 1.1) which represent the Earth’s orbit about the Sun; these phases control the insolation on the surface of the Earth (solar forcing) and are responsible for the natural variability of the climate.

COMMENTS ON FIGURE 1.1.– These parameters, each with their own frequency, combine together and cause climatic variations, particularly glacial/interglacial variations. The two curves to the bottom of the figure show: the variations in isotopes of oxygen in the plankton shells (SPECMAP) [MAR 87] which are determined by water temperature and the global volume of ice over the past 400,000 years. Ice cores entrap bubbles containing past atmospheres. The concentration of CO₂ in these bubbles (EPICA) [LUE 08] is very similar to that in the ocean, by identifying glacial (gray areas) and interglacial areas.

Figure 1.1. Parameters of the Earth’s orbit [LAS 04] molding the global climate (CO₂ concentration in ice core d), oxygen stable isotopes in marine sediments e), precession b) and obliquity c) influence the seasonal contrasts, eccentricity a) modulates (amplifies or not) precession effects (Beaufort, compilation of [LAS 04, LUE 08, MAR 87])

The reasons why the atmospheric concentration of CO₂ follows climatic variations are still not fully understood, but the ocean could be responsible for their long term natural variations. In fact, the ocean surface layer contains an enormous reservoir of carbon than can react with the atmosphere over these orbital time scales. Marine organisms are of particular importance in these mechanisms as they help incorporate (pump) and transfer a large amount of carbon from the surface of the ocean to the deep sea and into sediments (sinks). Their role becomes crucial in the global carbon cycle.

If we know that human activities, by emitting large quantities of CO₂ into the atmosphere, disturb the biological fluxes of carbon in the ocean, it is extremely difficult to predict the response of marine ecosystems and what the future holds for natural carbon in the biological cycle. Studying marine sediments, which can be considered as historical archives of ocean ecology, allows us to better understand how the ocean participates in the carbon cycle and how marine biodiversity adapts to global changes. In the past, these changes in biodiversity have sometimes had very significant retroactive effects on the environment and climate.

This contribution does not intend to describe the chemistry of oceans or biogeochemical cycles, widely developed in the first volume of this set of books [BER 14, LEG 14]. As stated by Legendre [LEG 14], despite their low biomass, pelagic ecosystems are the driver of biogeochemical cycles in the oceans. In this context, we will focus in particular on calcareous phytoplankton in the dynamics of carbon and its role in the evolution of past and future climates. The complexity of these processes is why this system is often disregarded in experimental research, models and projections.

1.2. Marine organisms and carbon

Marine organisms are clearly adapted to the ocean properties, in which they live, but they also actively contribute to its composition; since organismal biology is based on the chemistry of carbon, this is particularly true for the concentration of carbon dissolved in the sea. In fact, marine organisms use carbon to build their tissues (organic form of carbon), many of which also form solid skeletons, particularly in the form of calcium carbonate (inorganic form of carbon). The concentrations of dissolved and particulate carbon therefore change according to the mass and activity of these organisms. Two equations can express the dual effect of this activity on dissolved carbon: on the one hand, carbon sequestration by photosynthesis into their tissues [1.1] and, on the other hand, the release of CO₂ upon the construction of their carbonaceous skeleton from bicarbonate and dissolved calcium [1.2]:

[1.1]

[1.2]

These processes can be reversed depending on the environmental conditions. In addition, if the organic matter produced is used by another organism (grazing, predation), this will release carbon dioxide; however, if it is buried in the sediments; the carbon will be trapped, sometimes for very long periods of time (sequestration). With regard to the carbonates that form the skeletons (calcification), they will be either buried in sediment or dissolved in the ocean.

Calcification and biomineralization will depend on the biodiversity of the organisms; different species will not produce the same quantity of matter, skeletons do not have the same degree of calcification as they are produced at different paces. We will therefore see how marine biodiversity impacts the global carbon cycle and therefore climate.

1.3. Variability in the production of organic matter

During photosynthesis, marine algae absorb dissolved CO₂ to produce their biomass, thereby releasing oxygen (equation [1.1]). The algal production is not distributed uniformly throughout the ocean. Most multicellular algae live on the seabed and on a substrate; they are therefore known as benthic; and their distribution is limited to the shallowest depths of the ocean where sunlight can penetrate. On the contrary, algae that constitute the phytoplankton are almost all unicellular and floating; they are widely distributed along oceanic margins, and beyond, over a maximum of approximately 200 m wide in the water column.

Continental margins are generally much more productive in terms of organic matter than zones situated in the center of oceanic basins. In fact, rivers feed the coastal zones with nutritive salts (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.), required for the growth of phytoplankton. Offshore, in the pelagic zone, this lateral input is increasingly less as one strays from the continents. The wind sometimes brings dust rich in nutritive salts, but these fluxes rarely compensate for this deficit.

Pelagic phytoplankton that lives exclusively in the photic zone (zone exposed to light) depletes the nutrient stores during photosynthesis; the only way to regenerate this stock at the surface is by the vertical pumping of nutritive salts in the deep sea (>200 m). These vertical nutrient transfers, required for pelagic life, are only produced by updrafts caused by gusts of wind in favorable directions (upwelling) or by the deep mixing of surface layers during episodes of strong winds.

One example of this mechanism can be found in the Indian Ocean where monsoon winds are powerful enough to break down the vertical stratification and allow high phytoplanktonic production by fertilization at depth. This mixing acts over a certain depth and is called the mixed layer; when it reaches the thermocline that separates warm surface waters from cold deep waters, the nutritive salts then diffuse towards the surface. We can then easily understand that during periods favored by strong Indian monsoons, or strong trade winds, offshore of West Africa, oceanic primary production (produced by phytoplankton or PP) is reinforced.

Studying sediment cores taken from these zones has revealed that highly biologically productive periods alternate with depletions, and that these changes follow the rhythms of the Earth’s orbit. Thus, primary production, expressed in grams of carbon per meter squared per year, has increased from 120 to 200 gC/m²/yr, since the previous precession cycle of the equinoxes in the center of the Indian Ocean [BEA 97] or in the Banda Sea (Figure 1.2). By causing seasonal variations and by heating different tropical zones, these cycles cause the increase or decrease in winds above the Indian Ocean, beginning with oceanic production.

COMMENTS ON FIGURE 1.2.– Top: variations in organic productivity, common (calculated by EOF) to the entire tropical band in the Indian and Pacific Ocean [BEA 01] (continuous line and circles). The organic production varies a...