This outstanding guide supplies important mathematical tools for diverse engineering applications, offering engineers the basic concepts and terminology of modern global differential geometry. Suitable for independent study as well as a supplementary text for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses, this volume also constitutes a valuable reference for control, systems, aeronautical, electrical, and mechanical engineers.
The treatment's ideas are applied mainly as an introduction to the Lie theory of differential equations and to examine the role of Grassmannians in control systems analysis. Additional topics include the fundamental notions of manifolds, tangent spaces, vector fields, exterior algebra, and Lie algebras. An appendix reviews concepts related to vector calculus, including open and closed sets, compactness, continuity, and derivative.
This book presents some basic concepts, facts of global differential geometry, and some of its uses to a control engineer. It is not a mathematical treatise; the subject matter is well developed in many excellent books, for example, in references [1], [2], and [3], which, however, are intended for the reader with an extensive mathematical background. Here, only some basic ideas and a minimum of theorems and proofs are presented. Indeed, a proof occurs only if its presence strongly aids understanding. Even among basic ideas of the subject, many directions and results have been neglected. Only those needed for viewing control systems from the standpoint of vector fields are discussed.
Differential geometry treats of curves and surfaces, the functions that define them, and transformations between the coordinates that can be used to specify them. It also treats the differential relations that stitch pieces of curves or surfaces together or that tell one where to go next.
In thinking of functions that can define surfaces in space, one is likely to think of real functions (functions assigning a real number to a given point of their argument) of three-space variables such as the kinetic energy of a particle, or the distribution of temperature in a room. Differential geometry examines properties inherent in the surfaces these function define that, of course, are due to the sources of energy or temperature in the surroundings. Or, given enough of these functions, one might use them as proper coordinates of a problem. Then the generalities of differential geometry show how to operate with them when they are used, for example, to describe a dynamic evolution.
Differential geometry, in sum, derives general properties from the study of functions and mappings so that methods of characterization or operation can be carried over from one situation to another. Global differential geometry refers to the description of properties and operations that are over âlargeâ portions of space.
Though the studies of differential geometry began in geodesy and in dynamics where intuition can be a faithful guide, the spaces now in this geometryâs concern are far more general. Instead of considering a set of three or six real functions on a space of vectors of three or six dimensions, spaces can be described by longer ordered strings of numbers, by sets of numbers ordered in various ways, or by ordered sets of products of numbers. Examples are nâdimensional vector spaces, matrices, or multilinear objects like tensors. It is not just these sets of numbers, but also the rules one has of passing from one set to another that form the proper subject matter of differential geometry, linking it to matters of interest in control.
All analytic considerations of geometry begin with a space filled with stacks of numbers. Before one can proceed to discuss the relations that associate one point with another or dictate what point follows another, one has to establish certain ground rules. The ground rules that say if one point can be distinguished from another, or that there is a point close enough to wherever you want to go, are referred to as topological considerations. The basic description of the topological spaces underlying all the geometry of this paper is given in an appendix on fundamentals of vector calculus. This appendix discusses such desired topological characteristics as compactness and continuity, which is needed to preserve these characteristics in passing from one space to another. The appendix concludes by recalling two theorems from vector calculus that provide the basic glue by which manifolds, the word for the fundamental spaces of global differential geometry, are assembled. Since this discussion is fundamental to differential geometry, we briefly review it. The review is relegated to an appendix, however, because it is not the topic of this book, nor should one dwell on it.
The first two chapters of the body of the book describe manifolds, the spaces of our geometry. Some simple manifolds are mentioned. Several definitions are given, starting with one closest to intuition then passing to one perhaps more abstract, but actually less demanding to verify in cases of interest in control engineering. Then mappings between manifolds are considered. A special space, the tangent space, is discussed in chapter 3. A tangent space is attached to every point in the manifold. Since this is where the calculus is done, it and its relations to neighboring tangent spaces and to the manifold that supports it must be carefully described.
Computation in these spaces is the topic of the next few chapters. Calculus on manifolds is given in chapter 4 on vector fields and their algebra, where the connection between global differential geometry and linear and nonlinear control begins to become clear. Chapters 5 and 6, which treat some algebraic rules, conclude our exposition of the fundamentals of the geometry.
The examples given as the development unfolds should not only help the reader understand the topic under discussion but should also provide a basic set for testing ideas presented in the current literature. Chapter 7 is intended to give the reader a glimpse of the structure supporting the spaces in which linear control operates. More comprehensive applications of differential geometry to control are given in the final major chapter of the paper.
Chapter 2
MANIFOLDS AND THEIR MAPS
The first part of this chapter is devoted to the concept of a manifold. It is defined first by a projection then by a more useful though less intuitive definition. Finally, it is seen how implicitly defined functions give manifolds. Examples are considered both to enhance intuition and to bring out conceptual details. The idea of a manifold is brought out more clearly by considering mappings between manifolds. The properties of these mappings occupy the last part of this chapter.
2.1 Differentiable Manifolds
Although the detailed global description of a manifold can be quite complicated, basically a differentiable manifold is just a topological space (X, âŠ) that in the neighborhood of each point looks like an open subset of Rk. (In the notation (X, âŠ), X is some set and âŠ, consists of all the sets defined as open in X and that characterize its topology. As to the notation Rk, each point in Rk is specified as an ordered set of k real numbers. These and other notions arising below are discussed in the appendix.) This description can be formalized into a definition:
Definition 2.1A subset M ofRn is a kâdimensional manifold if for each x
M there are: open subsets U and V ofRn with x
U, and a diffeomorphism f from U to V such that:
Thus, a point y in the image of f has a representation like:
A straight line is a simple example of a one-dimensional manifold, a manifold in R1. It is a manifold in R1 even if it is given, for example, in R2. There it might represent the surface of solutions of the equation of a particle of unit mass under no forces:
= 0 and with given initial momentum:
(t = 0) = a. In the coordinate system y1 = x; y2 =
