The Camera Assistant's Manual

David E. Elkins, SOC

• Éditeur: Routledge
• Année: 2020
• ISBN:
  9780429836749
• Édition: 7
• Sujet: Media & Performing Arts
• Sous-sujet: Film & Video

Excel as a Cameraman in today's evolving film industry with this updated classic. Learn what to do – and what NOT to do – during production and get the job done right the first time.

This seventh edition covers the basics of cinematography and provides you with the multi-skill set needed to maintain and transport a camera, troubleshoot common problems on location, prepare for job interviews, and work with both film and digital technologies. Illustrations, checklists, and tables accompany each chapter and highlight the daily workflow of an Assistant Cameraman (AC), with expanded sections on problems and troubleshooting, updated formulas, tables, and checklists, as well as new information on the differences between working in the United States and UK and additional information on working with digital technology.

This is a must-have for anyone looking to succeed in this highly technical and ever-changing profession.

This book features a comprehensive companion web site that offers plenty of useful resources, including online tutorials that ACs can easily access while on location and supplementary downloadable forms and checklists.

1

Basics of Cinematography

To my knowledge all of this information is true and accurate and is based on my experience as well as research done in the compilation of this text. If you would like a more in-depth explanation about any of this information, you may consult any of the books listed in the Recommended Reading at the end of the book.

The motion picture industry uses many terms and specialized equipment that are not used anywhere else. To perform your duties as a Camera Assistant, you need to be aware of these terms and the basics of cinematography along with the names of specific pieces of equipment. You will be using these terms and will be hearing many of them in the day-to-day performance of your job. By introducing and explaining some of them here, I hope to make it easier for you as you read this book, as well as the first time you step onto a film set. It is important that you know and understand how to communicate on the set so that you can become a successful filmmaker and Cinematographer.

Film Formats

The term format may be used to indicate a few different things in the motion picture industry. In most instances the term is used to refer to the size of the film stock being used for shooting. With today’s digital technology the term format may also be in reference to the type of digital camera you are using or the size of the sensor in that camera. The two primary film formats used for shooting filmed productions are 16 mm and 35 mm. When using film, almost all professional cinematography is shot using one of these two formats. The 65 mm/70 mm format has been a popular release print format but it is used very infrequently for production primarily because of cost. Most of the newer digital production cameras use a sensor that captures an image approximately the same size as a 35 mm film frame and they are referred to as 35 mm digital camera format.

Figure 1.1 A piece of film showing perforations and pitch.

All motion picture film contains perforations so that it can be moved through the camera. The perforations may also be referred to as perfs or sprocket holes. These are equally spaced holes that are punched along the edges of the film so that it can be transported through the camera at a constant speed. The gear mechanisms in the cameras and magazines engage these perfs, moving the film smoothly through the camera. The spacing between the perforations is known as pitch and is defined as the distance from the top of one perforation to the top of the next perforation (see Figure 1.1).

16 mm Film – Single Perf or Double Perf

16 mm film actually comes in two different formats. One of these has the perforations along one edge of the film and is often referred to as single-perf film. The other has the perforations along both edges of the film and is often referred to as double perf film. Each frame of 16 mm film is two perforations high with one perforation at the top of the frame and one at the bottom, either on one side or on both sides of the frame, depending on if it is single or double perf. 16 mm film contains 40 frames per foot of film.

When shooting in the 16 mm format you will often hear the term Super 16. Super 16 doesn’t actually refer to a different film format; it simply means that you are using a larger area of the piece of 16 mm film which gives you a larger image. When shooting in Super 16 you must always use single-perf film in order to create the larger image size. Because there are no perforations on one side of the film, the picture area can be extended to the edge of the film for a larger image. The aspect ratio for Super 16 is 1.66:1. If you wish to shoot in the standard 16 mm aspect ratio of 1.33:1, commonly referred to as Academy Aperture, you may use either single-perf or double-perf film. More on aspect ratios later in this chapter. See Figure 1.2 for an illustration of a standard 16 mm film frame and a Super 16 mm film frame.

Figure 1.2 A, Standard 16 mm frame. B, Super 16 mm frame.

35 mm Film

35 mm film always has perforations on both sides of the film with the standard 35 mm frame being four perforations high. Standard 35 mm film contains 16 frames per foot of film. See Figure 1.3 for an illustration of a standard 35 mm film frame. The 65 mm/70 mm format is a popular release print format. Many films that are photographed on 35 mm film are enlarged to 65 mm/70 mm for release to theaters. A larger negative will result in a sharper, clearer picture when it is projected on a large theater screen. While some films have been shot using 65 mm film it is not a common practice due to the larger cost associated with rental of camera equipment, and the cost of purchasing and developing the film along with other factors. See Figure 1.4 for an illustration of a standard 65 mm film frame.

Figure 1.3 35 mm film frame.

Figure 1.4 65 mm film frame.

Videotape and Digital Filmmaking

Since productions began shooting on videotape, there have been many different formats used. The term format here basically indicates the size of the videotape being used. They include ¾-inch, Beta, VHS, S-VHS, VHS-C, 8 mm, Hi8, and Digital 8. Some newer videotape formats used in recent years include MiniDV (digital video), DVCPRO, and DVCAM. Most of these formats are no longer used for filming. If you are filming in a videotape format, be sure that the camera you are working with is compatible with the tapes you are using because in many cases they are not interchangeable. Check with the rental company or camera instruction manual if you are not sure.

Filming on videotape is rarely done these days, with most non-film-type productions filming in the digital format. The newer digital cameras have the ability to shoot on hard drives, memory, or media cards. Some of the most common types of media cards in use today include P-2 cards, SxS Cards, Compact Flash, Memory Stick, Mini SD, SD, SDHC, or SDXC. Again, be sure that you know exactly what type of recording medium your camera uses before starting production. Do some tests and be sure that you are totally familiar with your camera and all of its functions.

Aspect Ratios

The shape of the image frame is expressed as a ratio of its width to its height. This is referred to as the aspect ratio of the image. Since the beginning of filmmaking there have been three commonly used aspect ratios for filmed productions, which are 1.33:1, read as “one three three to one”; 1.85:1, read as “one eight five to one”; and 2.40:1, read as “two four oh to one.” The 1.33:1 aspect ratio may also be referred to as Academy Aperture. It is 1.33 times as wide as it is high. Many of the early motion pictures were shot using this aspect ratio. Academy Aperture may also be said to have an aspect ratio of 1.37:1. Older-style tube televisions had an aspect ratio that was basically the same as the Academy Aperture, and any films or shows shot strictly for television were usually shot using the academy aspect ratio (see Figure 1.5). The aspect ratio of the standard 4-perf high 35 mm frame of film shown in Figure 1.3 is the Academy Aperture of 1.33:1.

The standard aspect ratio for most theatrical motion pictures is 1.85:1. This format is usually referred to simply as “one eight five.” This wider format is obtained by chopping off the top and bottom portions of the Academy Aperture to give an image that is exactly 1.85 times as wide as it is high (see Figure 1.5). The 2.40:1 aspect ratio is often called Cinemascope, and the image is 2.40 times as wide as it is high. In most cases, to obtain this aspect ratio, a special anamorphic lens is used that squeezes the wider image onto a standard 35 mm frame of film. It is then projected through an anamorphic projection lens that un-squeezes it to produce the widescreen image. The other way to achieve Cinemascope is to shoot Super 35 mm and frame it for Cinemascope, then print anamorphic. During the printing process, the Cinemascope image is compressed or squeezed onto a square frame. During projection the image is projected through an anamorphic lens and stretched to fill the screen. Depending on whom you speak with or what reference material you use, the anamorphic or Cinemascope aspect ratio may also be listed as 2.35:1 or 2.36:1 (see Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Comparison of 1.33, 1.85, and 2.40 aspect ratios. A, 1.33:1. B, 1.85:1. C, 2.40:1. (Courtesy of Panavision Inc.)

In addition to the aspect ratios previously named, two others that are commonly used are 1.66:1 and 1.78:1. As stated earlier in this chapter the 1.66:1 aspect ratio is the standard aspect ratio for the Super 16 mm film format. At one time it was also the aspect ratio for shooting most European motion pictures. The 1.78:1 aspect ratio is one of the newer ones and may also be referred to as 16 × 9 format and is often referred to as HDTV (high-definition television). The new flat screen, high-definition televisions have a screen that has this aspect ratio which is almost the same aspect ratio as the standard 1.85:1 theatrical movie screen (see Figure 1.6). Also see Figures 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9 for illustrations of various aspect ratios.

Figure 1.6 A, 1.66:1 aspect ratio. B, 1.78:1 aspect ratio (HDTV). (Courtesy of Panavision Inc.)

Figure 1.7 ⅔-inch CCD, 16 mm, and Genesis camera aspect ratios. (Courtesy of Panavision Inc.)

It is not uncommon when shooting to frame for two different aspect ratios at the same time. You may be shooting a feature film, but we all know that most films eventually end up on television or video. By having a combination ground glass, such as a TV/1.85 or 1.78/1.85, you can frame the shots accordingly so that they will look correct on a movie screen, as well as when formatted for television. There are many different formats for shooting, and which one to use is often the decision of the DP, Director, and sometimes even the Producer. This decision determines which ground glass is going to be ordered for the camera. See Figures 5.26 and 5.27 in Chapter 5 for examples of the ground glass found in both Arriflex and Panavision 16 mm and 35 mm cameras. For many of these the ground glasses are marked for multiple formats.

Figure 1.8 35 mm aspect ratios. (Courtesy of Panavision Inc.)

Figure 1.9 65 mm/70 mm aspect ratios. (Cou...