Biomass for Energy in the Developing Countries

Current Role, Potential, Problems, Prospects

D. O. Hall, G. W. Barnard, P. A. Moss

• Éditeur: Pergamon
• Année: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781483138626
• Sujet: Commerce
• Sous-sujet: Immobilier

Biomass for Energy in the Developing Countries: Current Role, Potential, Problems, Prospects focuses on biomass energy and its importance to developing countries. This book outlines the reality that supply can no longer meet the demand of this form of energy. This fact is particularly observed in the rising price of oil, which is a prime source of energy for developing countries. Relative to this, a need to look for indigenous energy sources is urgent to sustain development in these countries. This book emphasizes that biomass energy utilization differs among developing countries, which shows the variance in energy needs. This text also notes that the pattern of biomass energy use in such countries is related to agriculture and also has cultural, economic, and social linkages. Biomass energy is also considered an important aspect in rural development and as a replacement for petroleum products. With the impending shortage of biomass energy, schemes are now being developed to sustain the use of this energy in household and industry settings, which is emphasized in the development of equipment considered energy efficient. People who are concerned with the development and implementation of programs aimed at conserving biomass energy and in the search of alternative energy can use this book as a reference.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Publisher Summary

The rising price of oil over the past decade has created a lot of difficulties for all countries reliant on oil for a major proportion of their commercial energy requirements. These problems can increase in the future as diminishing reserves and growing political pressures combine to force up the price and reduce the availability of oil. The pressures placed by oil price rises on the developing countries is particularly severe as, although their consumption is only modest compared to the industrialized nations, they are often in the weakest position regarding their ability to absorb energy price rises. Among the various energy alternatives, the development of energy from biomass is one area that has considerable promise in the developing countries. Biomass energy is the energy that can be derived from plant and animal materials through a variety of conversion and end-use processes. This chapter discusses several aspects of biomass energy development as they relate to the problems of the developing countries. This includes the technologies, the criteria for selecting technologies, the problems involved in implementing biomass schemes, the social and economic effects of introducing new energy use methods, and the role of biomass energy development in overall development planning.

1.1 Background

The rising price of oil over the last decade has created very obvious difficulties for all countries reliant on oil for a major proportion of their commercial energy requirements. These problems seem certain to increase in the future as diminishing reserves and growing political pressures combine to force up the price and reduce the availability of oil. The pressures placed by oil price rises on the developing countries has been particularly severe since, although their consumption is only modest compared to the industrialised nations, they are often in the weakest position with regard to their ability to absorb energy price rises.

As a result of these problems, and because increased energy consumption is an unavoidable prerequisite of future economic development, the need to develop alternative energy sources (renewable and non-renewable) is clear. Among the various energy alternatives the development of energy from biomass is one area which has considerable promise in the developing countries and is receiving increasing attention.

Biomass energy is a general term that refers to the energy that can be derived from plant and animal materials, through a variety of conversion and end-use processes. Although many new approaches for using biomass for energy have been developed in the last few decades, by far the majority of biomass energy-use today occurs in the consumption of so-called ‘traditional fuels’ in the developing countries. These traditional fuels (wood, charcoal, crop residues and animal dung) are used primarily for cooking and heating in the home, but also play an important role in certain industries. It is in the safeguarding of these traditional fuel supplies that the second major challenge for biomass energy development arises.

The problems of traditional fuel supplies have only recently come to widespread public attention but they pose threats equally fundamental to the future prospects of many developing countries as does the well-known oil crisis. Like many of the problems of the developing countries, this ‘second’ energy crisis is closely related to population growth and the pressures that this puts on the environment for provision of both food and fuel. The widespread and rampant deforestation that afflicts many developing countries, and its consequences (increased flooding, erosion and siltation), are the most dramatic symptoms of this problem. It is also reflected, however, in many less obvious ways, such as the removal of tree cover from within agricultural areas (which is rarely recorded in forestry statistics) and the gradual shift to more and more ecologically damaging fuel collection practices (such as the increased use of crop residues and dung – which diverts valuable nutrients and organic matter away from the soil). In human terms the efforts required to provide fuel for basic needs are already a major burden for a large part of the world’s population. In some countries these problems have reached crisis proportions – with people (commonly women and children) being forced to trek many miles to gather fuel, or spend large fractions of the total incomes on buying fuel. To alleviate these problems, and to ensure basic fuel (and food) supplies to future generations, it is essential that new methods are developed which can provide adequate fuel supplies in an ecologically sound and sustainable fashion.

A cursory examination of the fuel gathering and fuel-use practices presently employed in the developing countries shows them to be highly inefficient and wasteful (although they also have the overriding advantage of requiring very little financial expenditure) and points towards the significant improvements in the fuel supply situation that could be made by more efficient use of present biomass resources. Biomass supplies could also be increased in many cases, using relatively simple ploys such as planting trees on underutilised land. Using these, as well as other approaches, there appears to be considerable scope for using biomass energy systems to solve the domestic energy problems of the developing countries.

1.2 Objectives

The recognition of the potential that biomass energy has for helping to solve the energy problems of the developed countries has led to growing research activity in this area and an increasing involvement from governments as well as national and international organisations. Numerous studies have been made in the past few years of energy needs, available technologies and problems of diffusion of these technologies. It is a very broad subject, however, and both its technical diversity and the linkages it has with a wide variety of non-technical considerations (environmental, sociological, political and economic) make evaluation of the role of biomass energy development in overall planning an exceedingly complex and involved task.

The objective of this report is to draw together the many aspects of biomass energy development as they relate to the problems of the developing countries. This includes the technologies themselves (which range from very simple devices such as improved cooking stoves, to highly sophisticated options for the production of liquid fuels from various forms of biomass), the criteria for selecting technologies, the problems involved in implementing biomass schemes (and possible ways around these), the social and economic effects of introducing new energy use methods, and the role of biomass energy development in overall development planning.

The main thrust of this report is not to simplify the problems involved in biomass energy development, or to make judgements as to the best technologies or implementation approaches to use. Nor is any comprehensive attempt made to quantify the theoretical or practical feasibility of particular biomass options. Rather, the emphasis is placed on pointing out the issues that must be considered in arriving at an effective policy on biomass development and on highlighting the interactions, variables and unknowns that impinge upon this assessment process. A recurrent theme, therefore, is the differences that exist between developing countries, as well as within countries, and the important influence these have on the choice and viability of particular biomass systems.

Overall, no attempt is made to arrive at any sweeping conclusions as to the potential for biomass energy, either in specific cases or for the developing countries in general. This must be worked out in a case-by-case fashion, and with careful reference to a whole range of factors – many of which can only be assessed through practical experience. It is hoped, however, that the broad-ranging analysis presented here will provide a useful background to policy makers involved in the evaluation and development of biomass energy systems.

Chapter 2

The Present Role of Biomass Energy

Publisher Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the present role of biomass energy in the developing countries. It presents an approximation of the global magnitude of biomass energy use and the available quantitative data on biomass energy usage. The chapter describes the characteristics of biomass utilization—what types of biomass are used for fuel in the developing countries, how these fuels are collected, and how they are used and the functions that they perform. It also presents a summary of the available quantitative data on biomass energy usage. The pattern and extent of biomass energy utilization varies significantly between developing countries reflecting differences in energy needs, fuel-use practices, and the relative availability and cost of biomass fuels compared to other fuel forms. Within countries, energy use patterns are also far from uniform. They commonly show regional variations as well as difference between income groups. Use of biomass for cooking and heating in the home is the largest application of biomass energy. In many developing countries, the availability of crop residues for energy purposes is severely limited by the fact that these residues are also used extensively for animal feed as well as for various other purposes.

In assessing the future prospects for biomass energy in the developing countries it is important to understand the major role that biomass energy already has in these countries. As a background to the discussion of biomass development options that is presented subsequently, this chapter provides an outline of the present role of biomass energy in the developing countries. An approximation of the global magnitude of biomass energy use is presented initially. This is followed by a general description, in qualitative terms, of the characteristics of biomass utilisation – what types of biomass are used for fuel in the developing countries; how these fuels are collected; how they are used and the functions that they perform. Finally, a summary is presented of the available quantitative data on biomass energy usage.

2.1 Global Perspective

The role that biomass plays in the current world energy supply has only recently been fully recognised. Although estimates are still only crude – due to the non-commercial nature of most biomass fuels and the resulting problems in measuring their consumption – energy from biomass probably accounts for as much as one seventh of total world energy consumption. (This is approximately four times the amount which is provided by hydroelectricity and nuclear power combined.) This startlingly high figure arises from the fact that the main biomass fuel forms – wood and charcoal – are the primary cooking and heating fuels for more than half of the world’s population.

The role of biomass in the developing countries is particularly striking. In many countries, as is described later, biomass provides more than half of total energy needs. In extreme cases this reliance can be as great as 95%. The global distribution of biomass energy use between the developed and developing countries is shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.1. Whereas biomass represents only a minor component in the energy budget of developed countries, on average it provides for approximately 43% of the energy use of developing countries. The majority of this use occurs in rural areas, where about 70% of the population lives, and where biomass fuels are often the only energy source which is both available and affordable to the mass of the population.

Figure 2.1 Global Distribution of Energy Use (1978) Source : Commercial Energy – UN; “Energy Supplies 1970–78” Biomass Energy – Calculated assuming annual per capita consumption of biomass fuels in developing countries equals 15 GJ for rural populations (2.1 billi...