Beyond Religion

Ethics for a Whole World

The Dalai Lama

• Éditeur: Mariner Books
• Année: 2011
• ISBN:
  9780547645728
• Sujet: Philosophy
• Sous-sujet: Eastern Philosophy

A guide to leading an ethical, happy, and spiritual life beyond religion and cultivating key human values, from a beloved world religious leader.

Ten years ago, in the best-selling Ethics for a New Millennium, His Holiness the Dalai Lama first proposed an approach to ethics based on universal rather than religious principles. With Beyond Religion, he returns to the conversation at his most outspoken, elaborating and deepening his vision for the nonreligious way—a path to lead an ethical, happy, and spiritual life. Transcending the religion wars, he outlines a system of ethics for our shared world, one that makes a stirring appeal for a deep appreciation of our common humanity, offering us all a road map for improving human life on individual, community, and global levels.

"Best Religious Books of 2011" Huffington Post "A book that brings people together on the firm grounds of shared values, reminding us why the Dalai Lama is still one of the most important religious figures in the world."—

"Cogent and fresh…This ethical vision is needed as we face the global challenges of technological progress, peace, environmental destruction, greed, science, and educating future generations."— Spirituality & Practice

11

Meditation as Mental Cultivation

WE HAVE NOW explored in some detail what spirituality and ethical living entail in terms of personal practice. We have discussed some ways to bring mindful awareness into everyday life, some ways to develop greater awareness so that we can learn to regulate our emotions, and, finally, some ways to actively cultivate our inner values. Since all these practices, especially the last two, involve some degree of disciplined application of the mind, in this final chapter I would like to say a few words about cultivating mental discipline. For myself, such cultivation is an indispensable part of daily life. On the one hand, it helps reinforce my determination always to act compassionately for the well-being of others. On the other, it helps me keep in check those afflictive thoughts and emotions by which we are all assailed from time to time, and to maintain a calm mind.

By mental cultivation I mean a disciplined application of mind that involves deepening our familiarity with a chosen object or theme. Here I am thinking of the Sanskrit term bhavana, which connotes “cultivation,” and whose Tibetan equivalent, gom, has the connotation of “familiarization.” These two terms, often translated into English as meditation, refer to a whole range of mental practices and not just, as many suppose, to simple methods of relaxation. The original terms imply a process of cultivating familiarity with something, whether it is a habit, a way of seeing, or a way of being.

A Process of Transformation

How, then, does this process of mental cultivation lead to spiritual and inner transformation? Here it may be helpful to invoke the idea of the “three levels of understanding,” as found in the classical Buddhist theory of mental transformation. These levels are understanding derived through hearing (or learning), understanding derived through reflection, and understanding derived through contemplative experience. For example, consider people who are seeking to understand the deeply interdependent nature of today’s world. They may first learn about it by listening to someone talk about this issue or by reading about it. But unless they deeply reflect upon what they hear or read, their understanding remains superficial and closely tied to their knowledge of the meaning of the words. At this level, their understanding of a given fact will be only an informed assumption. However, as they then reflect more deeply upon its meaning, applying analysis as well as dwelling mindfully upon the conclusion they reach, a deep sense of conviction arises of the truth of the fact. This is the second level in the process of understanding. Finally, as they continue to cultivate deep familiarity with the fact, their insight into it becomes internalized, making it almost part of their own nature. They have then reached the third level of understanding, which is characterized in the classical texts as experiential, spontaneous, and effortless.

There is nothing mysterious about this process of transformation. In fact, it is something that occurs in our everyday lives. A good analogy is the process of acquiring a skill, such as swimming or riding a bicycle, where the key factor is actual practice. In the context of education, for example, this progression—from first hearing or learning, to deepening one’s understanding through critical reflection, to conviction—is quite usual. It is well known, for instance, that knowledge that is based simply on hearing or reading, without being processed through reflection, does not lead to strong conviction. For this reason it cannot result in any real change. But if, through critical reflection, we have gained deep conviction about what we have learned, this can lead to a serious commitment on our part to make that knowledge part of our personal outlook.

This process applies not just to the development of the intellect but also to that of our more affective qualities, such as compassion. Through critical reflection we come to recognize the value of compassion. This can in turn lead to a profound admiration of the virtue itself. Admiration of the virtue may then lead to a commitment to cultivate compassion within ourselves, and this commitment, to actual practice. In other words, awareness of the benefits gives rise to conviction that it is worthwhile to practice, and practice leads us to actually realize, or bring into being, the quality or virtue we began by reflecting on.

Forms of Mental Cultivation

All the major faith traditions emphasize the importance of developing one’s inner life, and many of the techniques found in my own tradition exist in some form in other traditions as well. In particular, there are many similarities between the various mental training practices used in different Indian contemplative traditions. But large areas are shared with other spiritual traditions too. Recently, for example, I attended a very enjoyable and informative talk on contemplative prayer given by a Christian Carmelite monk who pointed out some striking similarities between Christian and Buddhist techniques.

Yet, for all the associations of meditation or mental cultivation with religion, there is no reason why it should not be undertaken in an entirely secular context. After all, mental discipline itself requires no faith commitment. All it requires is a recognition that developing a calmer, clearer mind is a worthwhile endeavor and an understanding that doing so will benefit both oneself and others. So far as my own daily practice is concerned, besides certain specifically religious and devotional exercises, I engage in two main types of mental cultivation practice—discursive or analytic meditation and absorptive meditation. The first is a kind of analytic process by means of which the meditator engages in a series of reflections, while the second involves concentrating on a specific object or objective and placing one’s mind upon it as if dwelling deeply on a conclusion. I find that combining the two techniques is most beneficial.

One useful way to understand the different forms of mental cultivation is to look at each practice from the perspective of its objective. There is, for example, the practice which has the form of taking something as an object, such as when one takes, say, the fundamental equality of all beings as the object of deep contemplation. Then there is meditation in the form of cultivation of positive mental qualities. In this form, qualities like compassion and loving-kindness are not so much seen as the objects of the practice. Rather, the person seeks to cultivate these qualities within his or her heart. The first of these two approaches corresponds to the development of mental states that are more cognitively oriented, such as understanding, while the second develops more affect-oriented mental states, such as compassion. We might refer to these two processes as “educating our mind” and “educating our heart.”

Because we live in an age when much can be done at the touch of a button, some of us may expect to see immediate change in the domain of mental cultivation as well. We may suppose that inner transformation is simply a matter of getting the correct formula or reciting the right mantra. This is a mistake. Mental cultivation takes time and effort and involves hard work and sustained dedication.

Dealing with Procrastination

For the beginner, the first requirement for mental cultivation is a serious commitment to practice. Without such a commitment, it is unlikely that a person will ever get around to starting at all! I sometimes tell a story in connection with the problem of procrastination. There was once a lama who, to encourage his students, promised he would take them on a picnic one day. This incentive had the hoped-for effect, and the young monks eagerly applied themselves to their studies. Yet the promised picnic did not materialize. After some time, the youngest student, not willing to let go of the prospect of a day off, reminded the teacher of his promise. The lama responded by saying he was too busy at the moment, so it would have to wait awhile. A long time passed, and summer gave way to autumn. Again the student reminded the lama, “When are we going on this famous picnic?” Again the lama replied, “Not just now, I’m really far too busy.” One day the lama noticed a commotion among the students. “What is happening?” he asked. A dead body was being carried out of the monastery. “Well,” replied the youngest student, “that poor man over there is going on a picnic!”

The point of this story is that unless we make time and a proper commitment for the things we tell ourselves and others we are going to do, we will always have other obligations and more pressing concerns—while death may intervene at any time.

Planning Our Practice

At the outset I should sound a note of caution. As the beginning meditator will quickly discover, the mind is like a wild horse. Like a wild horse, it takes a long time as well as familiarity with the person who wishes to tame it before it will settle down and obey commands. Similarly, only with gentle persistence over an extended period will the real benefits of meditation become apparent. Of course it is all right to set aside just a few days to try out a short program of mental training, but it is wrong to judge the results before you have really given it a chance. It may take months, even years, to realize its full benefits.

As to the specifics of practice, early morning is generally the best time of day. At that time, the mind is at its freshest and clearest. However, it is important to remember that if you are to practice well in the early morning, you need to have had a good night’s sleep beforehand. For myself, I must say that I have been most fortunate when it comes to sleep. Despite rising every morning around 3:30 A.M., on average I make sure that I get eight or nine hours of sound sleep. For a lot of people, this may be difficult to arrange. If, for example, there are young children in the house, it may not be possible to meditate during the early hours. If this is the case, it will probably be better to find some other time to practice, preferably after a short nap or when the children are out of the house. I should also point out that the mind will tend to be sluggish if you have eaten a lot beforehand. Ideally you should not eat too much in the evening if you hope to practice well the following morning.

As to the amount of time you should aim to set aside for meditation, in the early stages even ten to fifteen minutes per session is quite adequate. In fact, it is much better to have modest ambitions than to embark on an unsustainable program which is more likely to put you off than to help you ingrain a habit. It is also helpful to plan to practice for a few minutes several times during the day in addition to the main session. As you keep a fire going by stoking it every so often, you can maintain the continuum of your meditation by “topping up” every now and again so that what you gained earlier does not fade away entirely by the time you begin the next proper session.

Regarding where to practice, it is said in the classical training manuals that sound is like a thorn in the mind. For most people, therefore, it is very helpful to find somewhere to sit where we will not be disturbed by noise. Obviously, too, it is a good idea to switch off the telephone before starting. But none of this is to say that meditation cannot be practiced more or less anywhere, or at any moment of the day. I am talking here just about the ideal. Personally, I find it a good use of time to meditate when traveling.

As to the physical posture appropriate for meditation, any position that is comfortable will do, though if you become too comfortable, there is a danger that you may drift off to sleep. That said, it can be helpful to adopt what is usually called the lotus position, in which you cross your legs with each foot resting on the opposite thigh. One advantage of this position is that, in addition to keeping you warm, it keeps your back quite straight. At first it may be uncomfortable, in which case simply sitting with your legs crossed some of the time is all right, as indeed is sitting on a chair if that position is also difficult. Similarly, for those who, on account of their faith tradition, prefer to meditate while kneeling, that too is all right. You should choose whatever position you find least distracting.

If you do choose the lotus position, you can place your hands in a relaxed position, with the back of the right hand resting on the palm of the left. Allow the elbows to rest loosely, pushed out a bit from the body so that there is a gap which the air can pass through. Often it is helpful to sit on a cushion which is raised slightly at the back. This helps straighten the backbone, which ideally should be kept straight as an arrow, with just the neck bent a little downward. Keeping the tip of the tongue touching the palate helps prevent the thirst which can set in as a result of certain breathing exercises. The lips and teeth can be left as usual. So far as the eyes are concerned, you can discover for yourself what position works best for you. Some people find that meditating with their eyes open is most effective. Others find this very distracting. For most, half-closing the eyes is generally best, but some find it helpful to close them completely.

Relaxing and Settling the Mind

Once you are settled, the first thing to do is take a few deep breaths. Then, breathing normally again, try to focus on your breath, noticing the air as it enters and leaves through the nostrils. What you are trying to achieve is a mind in a neutral state, neither positive nor negative. Alternatively, you can take one inhalation and one exhalation while silently counting from one to five or seven, and then repeat the process a few times. The advantage of this silent counting is that, in giving our mind a task to perform, it makes it less likely to be swept away by extraneous thoughts. In either case, spending a few minutes just observing your breathing is usually a good way to achieve a calmer mental state.

We can liken this process of settling the mind to dyeing a piece of cloth. White cloth can easily be dyed a different color, but it is difficult to dye a piece of cloth that is already colored, unless we want to make it black. In the same way, when the mind is agitated, a positive result is hard to come by.

Sometimes you may find it difficult to concentrate at all because your mind is in the grip of some powerful emotion, like anger. At such times, it can be helpful to quietly say a few words over and over. A formula such as “I let go of my afflictive emotions” or, for religious believers, a short devotional prayer or mantra repeated a few times can loosen the grip of the emotion. If this technique does not work, then maybe you need to get up and go for a short walk before trying again.

There may be occasions, especially in the beginning stages, when negative thoughts keep returning after a short time. In such cases, you may find that a whole session is taken up with exercises to calm or still the mind. This is all right: it is still mental training. As you gain some experience of how the mind works and learn what techniques work best for you, you will gradually become familiar with a more neutral state of mind. This alone is good progress.

When you have succeeded in establishing a more settled state, perhaps a few minutes into your session, you can then begin the actual work of mental cultivation.

In the initial stages of your training, it is best to practice several different exercises successively. To start with, you may find it impossible to keep your mind focused for more than a few minutes—perhaps even just a few seconds—at a time before distraction sets in. This is quite normal. As soon as you realize you have become distracted, just return gently to whatever you were doing before the distraction arose. There should be no anger or self-reproach when this happens, just a patient recognition of what the mind is doing and a calm redirection of the attention. The important thing is not to become discouraged.

Reflecting on the Benefits of Mental Training

One very useful exercise at the beginning of a session is to consider the benefits of practice. An immediate benefit is that practice gives us a brief respite from the often obsessive worrying, calculating, and fantasizing with which our minds are habitually occupied. This by itself is a great boon. Another benefit to reflect on is that practice is a sure path to the highest wisdom, even if that path is a long one and there will be many obstacles to overcome along the way.

It is also good to spend some time reflecting on what may happen if we neglect to practice. There is a danger that we will end up like the monk in the picnic story—carried off as a corpse—before we ever know the benefits of the endeavor. One who never engages in this kind of work has very little chance of dealing effectively with the destructive thoughts and emotions which, when they take hold of us, destroy all hope of peace of mind.

Having deeply considered these two opposing possibilities and the advantages of the one compared with the disadvantages of the other, we then go back and forth between them. As we do so, we should find that the benefits far outweigh any arguments in favor of not practicing. We then rest the mind on this conclusion for a short time before moving on to the next stage of the session.

Some Formal Practices

FOCUSED ATTENTION

A more formal meditation practice is the cultivation of sustained attention through single-pointed concentration. Here, you choose an object as the focus of your attention. It may be a flower, a painting, or simply an orb of light; or, for a religious practitioner, a sacred object such as a crucifix or an image of a Buddha. Although, when you begin, it may be helpful to have the actual object in front of you as an aid, ultimately the physical thing is not the focus of your attention. Instead, once you have chosen your object, try to cultivate a mental image of it, and when you are quite familiar with the image, you fix it in your mind’s eye. This mental image of the object is what serves as the anchor for your meditation.

Having relaxed and settled your mind, try to maintain your focus on the object. Visualize it about four feet in front of you and at the level of your eyebrows. Imagine the object to be approximately two inches in height and radiating light, so that the image is bright and clear. Also try to conceive of it as being heavy. This heaviness has the effect of preventing excitement, while the object’s brightness prevents the onset of laxity.

It is best, when engaging in this type of meditation, not to shut the eyes but to keep them slightly open, looking downwards. Sometimes they may close of their own accord, and that is all right. But the important thing is that they should be neither tightly closed nor wide open. I might also mention here that for people who, like me, normally wear glasses, taking them off for meditating is not always a good idea. Although without our glasses there is less danger of visual distraction, we may, owing to the loss of visual clarity, more easily experience laxity or dullness. This in turn can lead to our practice taking the form of an undirected reverie. If this happens, one helpful countermeasure is to think of something agreeable, something that makes you feel joyful. Another is to think of something sobering, even something that makes you feel a little sad. Or you may imagine looking down f...