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Light on Yoga
The Definitive Guide to Yoga Practice
B. K. S. Iyengar
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Light on Yoga
The Definitive Guide to Yoga Practice
B. K. S. Iyengar
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Sujet
Scienze biologicheSous-sujet
Scienze motorie e sportivePart I
Introduction
what is yoga?
The word Yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj meaning to bind, join, attach and yoke, to direct and concentrate oneâs attention on, to use and apply. It also means union or communion. It is the true union of our will with the will of God. âIt thus means,â says Mahadev Desai in his introduction to the Gita according to Gandhi, âthe yoking of all the powers of body, mind and soul to God; it means the disciplining of the intellect, the mind, the emotions, the will, which that Yoga presupposes; it means a poise of the soul which enables one to look at life in all its aspects evenly.â
Yoga is one of the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy. It was collated, co-ordinated and systematised by Patañjali in his classical work, the Yoga Sutras, which consists of 185 terse aphorisms. In Indian thought, everything is permeated by the Supreme Universal Spirit (ParamÄtmÄ or God) of which the individual human spirit (jÄ«vÄtmÄ) is a part. The system of yoga is so called because it teaches the means by which the jÄ«vÄtmÄ can be united to, or be in communion with the ParamÄtmÄ, and so secure liberation (mokáčŁa).
One who follows the path of Yoga is a yogi or yogin.
In the sixth chapter of the Bhagavad GÄ«tÄ which is the most important authority on Yoga philosophy, Ćri Krishna explains to Arjuna the meaning of Yoga as a deliverance from contact with pain and sorrow. It is said:
âWhen his mind, intellect and self (ahamkÄra) are under control, freed from restless desire, so that they rest in the spirit within, a man becomes a Yukta â one in communion with God. A lamp does not flicker in a place where no winds blow; so it is with a yogi, who controls his mind, intellect and self, being absorbed in the spirit within him. When the restlessness of the mind, intellect and self is stilled through the practice of Yoga, the yogi by the grace of the Spirit within himself finds fulfilment. Then he knows the joy eternal which is beyond the pale of the senses which his reason cannot grasp. He abides in this reality and moves not therefrom. He has found the treasure above all others. There is nothing higher than this. He who has achieved it, shall not be moved by the greatest sorrow. This is the real meaning of Yoga â a deliverance from contact with pain and sorrow.â
As a well cut diamond has many facets, each reflecting a different colour of light, so does the word yoga, each facet reflecting a different shade of meaning and revealing different aspects of the entire range of human endeavour to win inner peace and happiness.
The Bhagavad GÄ«tÄ also gives other explanations of the term yoga and lays stress upon Karma Yoga (Yoga by action). It is said: âWork alone is your privilege, never the fruits thereof. Never let the fruits of action be your motive; and never cease to work. Work in the name of the Lord, abandoning selfish desires. Be not affected by success or failure. This equipoise is called Yoga.â
Yoga has also been described as wisdom in work or skilful living amongst activities, harmony and moderation.
âYoga is not for him who gorges too much, nor for him who starves himself. It is not for him who sleeps too much, nor for him who stays awake. By moderation in eating and in resting, by regulation in working and by concordance in sleeping and waking, Yoga destroys all pain and sorrow.â
The Kaáčhopanishad describes Yoga thus: âWhen the senses are stilled, when the mind is at rest, when the intellect wavers not â then, say the wise, is reached the highest stage. This steady control of the senses and mind has been defined as Yoga. He who attains it is free from delusion.â
In the second aphorism of the first chapter of the Yoga Sutras, Patañjali describes Yoga as âchitta váčtti nirodhahâ. This may be translated as the restraint (nirodhah) of mental (chitta) modifications (váčtti) or as suppression (nirodhah) of the fluctuations (váčtti) of consciousness (chitta). The word chitta denotes the mind in its total or collective sense as being composed of three categories: (a) mind (manas, that is, the individual mind having the power and faculty of attention, selection and rejection; it is the oscillating indecisive faculty of the mind); (b) intelligence or reason (buddhi, that is, the decisive state which determines the distinction between things) and (c) ego (ahamkÄra, literally the I-maker, the state which ascertains that âI knowâ).
The word váčtti is derived from the Sanskrit root váčt meaning to turn, to revolve, to roll on. It thus means course of action, behaviour, mode of being, condition or mental state. Yoga is the method by which the restless mind is calmed and the energy directed into constructive channels. As a mighty river which when properly harnessed by dams and canals, creates a vast reservoir of water, prevents famine and provides abundant power for industry; so also the mind, when controlled, provides a reservoir of peace and generates abundant energy for human uplift.
The problem of controlling the mind is not capable of easy solution, as borne out by the following dialogue in the sixth chapter of the Bhagavad GÄ«tÄ. Arjuna asks Ćri Krishna:
âKrishna, you have told me of Yoga as a communion with Brahman (the Universal Spirit), which is ever one. But how can this be permanent, since the mind is so restless and inconsistent? The mind is impetuous and stubborn, strong and wilful, as difficult to harness as the wind.â Ćri Krishna replies: âUndoubtedly, the mind is restless and hard to control. But it can be trained by constant practice (abhyÄsa) and by freedom from desire (vairÄgya). A man who cannot control his mind will find it difficult to attain this divine communion; but the self-controlled man can attain it if he tries hard and directs his energy by the right means.â
The stages of yoga
The right means are just as important as the end in view. Patañjali enumerates these means as the eight limbs or stages of Yoga for the quest of the soul. They are:
1. Yama (universal moral commandments); 2. Niyama (self purification by discipline); 3. Äsana (posture); 4. PrÄáčÄyÄma (rhythmic control of the breath); 5. PratyÄhÄra (withdrawal and emancipation of the mind from the domination of the senses and exterior objects); 6. DhÄraáčÄ (concentration); 7. DhyÄna (meditation) and 8. SamÄdhi (a state of superconsciousness brought about by profound meditation, in which the individual aspirant (sÄdhaka) becomes one with the object of his meditation â ParamÄtmÄ or the Universal Spirit).
Yama and Niyama control the yogiâs passions and emotions and keep him in harmony with his fellow man. Äsanas keep the body healthy and strong and in harmony with nature. Finally, the yogi becomes free of body consciousness. He conquers the body and renders it a fit vehicle for the soul. The first three stages are the outward quests (bahiranga sÄdhanÄ).
The next two stages, PrÄáčÄyÄma and PratyÄhÄra, teach the aspirant to regulate the breathing, and thereby control the mind. This helps to free the senses from the thraldom of the objects of desire. These two stages of Yoga are known as the inner quests (antaranga sÄdhanÄ).
DhÄraáčÄ, DhyÄna and SamÄdhi take the yogi into the innermost recesses of his soul. The yogi does not look heavenward to find God. He knows that HE is within, being known as the AntarÄtmÄ (the Inner Self). The last three stages keep him in harmony with himself and his Maker. These stages are called antarÄtmÄ sÄdhanÄ, the quest of the soul.
By profound meditation, the knower, the knowledge and the known become one. The seer, the sight and the seen have no separate existence from each other. It is like a great musician becoming one with his instrument and the music that comes from it. Then, the yogi stands in his own nature and realises his self (Ätman), the part of the Supreme Soul within himself.
There are different paths (mÄrgas) by which a man travels to his Maker. The active man finds realisation through Karma MÄrga, in which a man realises his own divinity through work and duty. The emotional man finds it through Bhakti MÄrga, where there is realisation through devotion to and love of a personal God. The intellectual man pursues JñÄna MÄrga, where realisation comes through knowledge. The meditative or reflective man follows Yoga MÄrga, and realises his own divinity through control of the mind.
Happy is the man who knows how to distinguish the real from the unreal, the eternal from the transient and the good from the pleasant by his discrimination and wisdom. Twice blessed is he who knows true love and can love all Godâs creatures. He who works selflessly for the welfare of others with love in his heart is thrice blessed. But the man who combines within his mortal frame knowledge, love and selfless service is holy and becomes a place of pilgrimage, like the confluence of the rivers GangÄ, SaraswatÄ« and JamunÄ. Those who meet him become calm and purified.
Mind is the king of the senses. One who has conquered his mind, senses, passions, thought and reason is a king among men. He is fit for RÄja Yoga, the royal union with the Universal Spirit. He has Inner Light.
He who has conquered his mind is a RÄja Yogi. The word rÄja means a king. The expression RÄja Yoga implies a complete mastery of the Self. Though Patañjali explains the ways to control the mind, he nowhere states in his aphorisms that this science is RÄja Yoga, but calls it AáčŁáčÄáč
ga Yoga or the eight stages (limbs) of Yoga. As it implies complete mastery of the self one may call it the science of RÄja Yoga.
SwÄtmÄrÄma, the author of the Haáčha Yoga PradÄ«pikÄ (haáčha = force or determined effort) called the same path Haáčha Yoga because it demanded rigorous discipline.
It is generally believed that RÄja Yoga and Haáčha Yoga are entirely distinct, different and opposed to each other, that the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali deal with Spiritual discipline and that the Haáčha Yoga PradÄ«pikÄ of SwÄtmÄrÄma deals solely with physical discipline. It is not so, for Haáčha Yoga and RÄja Yoga complement each other and form a single approach towards Liberation. As a mountaineer needs ladders, ropes and crampons as well as physical fitness and discipline to climb the icy peaks of the HimÄlayas, so does the Yoga aspirant need the knowledge and discipline of the Haáčha Yoga of SwÄtmÄrÄma to reach the heights of RÄja Yoga dealt with by Patañjali.
This path of Yoga is the fountain for the other three paths. It brings calmness and tranquillity and prepares the mind for absolute unqualified self-surrender to God, in which all these four paths merge into one.
Chitta Váčtti (Causes for the Modification of the Mind)
In his Yoga Sutras Patañjali lists five classes of chitta váčtti which create pleasure and pain. These are:
- PramÄáča (a standard or ideal), by which things or values are measured by the mind or known, which men accept upon (a) direct evidence such as perception (pratyakáčŁa), (b) inference (anumÄna) and (c) testimony or the word of an acceptable authority when the source of knowledge has been checked as reliable and trustworthy (Ägama).
- Viparyaya (a mistaken view which is observed to be such after study). A faulty medical diagnosis based on wrong hypotheses, or the formerly held theory in astronomy that the Sun rotates round the Earth, are examples of viparyaya.
- Vikalpa (fancy or imagination, resting merely on verbal expression without any factual basis). A beggar may feel happy when he imagines himself spending millions. A rich miser, on the other hand, may starve himself in the belief that he is poor.
- NidrÄ (sleep), where there is the absence of ideas and experiences. When a man is sleeping soundly, he does not recall his name, family or status, his knowledge or wisdom, or even his own existence. When a man forgets himself in sleep, he wakes up refreshed. But, if a disturbing thought creeps into his mind when he is dropping off, he will not rest properly.
- Smáčti (memory, the holding fast of the impressions of objects that one has experienced). There are people who live in their past experiences, even though the past is beyond recall. Their sad or happy memories keep them chained to the past and they cannot break their fetters.
Patañjali enumerates five causes of chitta váčtti creating pain (kleĆa). These are:
(1) AvidyÄ (ignorance or nescience); (2) asmitÄ (the feeling of individuality which limits a person and distinguishes him from a group and which may be physical, mental, intellectual or emotional); (3) rÄga (attachment or passion); (4) dveĆa (aversion or revulsion) and (5) abhiniveĆa (love of or thirst for life, the instinctive clinging to worldly life and bodily enjoyment and the fear that one may be cut off from all this by death). These causes of pain remain submerged in the mind of the sÄdhaka (the aspirant or seeker). They are like icebergs barely showing their heads in the polar seas. So long as they are not studiously controlled and eradicated, there can be no peace. The yogi learns to forget the past and takes no thought for the morrow. He lives in the eternal present.
As a breeze ruffles the surface of a lake and distorts the images reflected therein, so also the chitta váčtti disturb the peace of the mind. The still waters of a lake reflect the beauty around it. When the mind is still, the beauty of the Self is seen reflected in it. The yogi stills his mind by constant study and by freeing himself from desires. The eight stages of Yoga teach him the way.
Chitta VikáčŁepa (Distractions and Obstacles)
The distractions and obstacles which hinder the aspirantâs practice of Yoga are:
- VyÄdhi â sickness which disturbs the physical equilibrium
- StyÄna â langour or lack of mental disposition for work
- SamĆaya â doubt or indecision
- PramÄda â indifference or insensibility
- Älasya â laziness
- Avirati â sensuality, the rousing of desire when sensory objects possess the mind
- BhrÄnti DarĆana â false or invalid knowledge, or illusion
- Alabdha BhĆ«mikatva â failure to attain continuity of thought or concentration so that reality cannot be seen
- Anavasthitattva â instability in holding on to concentration which has been attained after long practice.
There are, however, four more distractions: (1) duáž„kha â pain or misery, (2) daurmansya â despair, (3) aáč
gamejayatva â unsteadiness of the body and (4) ĆvÄsa-praĆvÄsa â unsteady respiration.
To win a battle, a general surveys the terrain and the enemy and plans countermeasures. In a similar way the Yogi plans the conquest of the Self.
VyÄdhi: It will be noticed that the very first obstacle is ill-health or sickness. To the yogi his body is the prime instrument of attainment. If his vehicle breaks down, the traveller cannot go far. If the body is broken by ill-health, the aspirant can achieve little. Physical health is important for mental development, as normally the mind functions through the nervous system. When the body is sick or the nervous system is affected, the mind becomes restless or dull and inert and concentration or meditation become impossible.
StyÄna: A person suffering from languor has no goal, no path to follow and no enthusiasm. His mind and intellect become dull due to inactivity and their faculties rust. Constant flow keeps a mountain stream pure, but water in a ditch stagnates and nothing good can flourish in it. A listless person is like a living corpse for he can concentrate on nothing.
SamĆaya: The unwise, the faithless and the doubter destroy themselves. How can they enjoy this world or the next or have any happiness? The seeker should have faith in himself and his master. He should have faith that God is ever by his side and that no evil can touch him. As faith springs up in the heart it dries out lust, ill-will, mental sloth, spiritual pride and doubt, and the heart free from these hindrances becomes serene and untroubled.
PramÄda: A person suffering from pramÄda is full of self-importance, lacks any humility and believes that he alone is wise. No doubt he knows what is right or wrong, but he persists in his indifference to the right and chooses what is pleasant. To gratify his selfish passions and dreams of personal glory, he will deliberately and without scruple sacrifice everyone who stands in his way. Such a person is blind to Godâs glory and deaf to His words.
Älasya: To remove the obstacle of laziness, unflagging enthusiasm (vÄ«rya) is needed. The attitude of the aspirant is like that of a lover ever yearning to meet the beloved but never giving way to despair. Hope should be his shield and courage his sword. He should be free from hate and sorrow. With faith and enthus...