MIKE SUTTON
The Morris Diaspora
Transplanting an Old English Tradition or Inventing a New American One?
The history of any leisure pursuit may illuminate changing patterns of sociability in the wider community, as happened, for example, with Robert Putnamâs Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community.1 Americaâs morris dance groups seem as worthy of study as her bowling leagues, and an activity with such deep English roots and extensive American branches surely deserves its niche in the diaspora project. This brief study cannot offer a comprehensive history of American morris.2 Its more limited aim is to reveal how the ethos and techniques of morris reached America and what became of them there. Its conclusions rest on the analysis of primary and secondary sources, on responses to a lengthy questionnaire, and on participant observations with American morris clubs, or âsidesâ [âSideâ is the standard term for a group of Morris dancers who practice and perform regularly, and have designated officers such as a secretary, treasurer, etc].
Most traditional dances are either social or ceremonial. Social dances usually involve equal numbers of men and women, are often associated with courtship or flirtation, and are generally performed throughout the year in everyday dress. Ceremonial dances often celebrate specific seasonsâsometimes particular daysâand frequently involve single-gender groups wearing distinctive costumes. Morris is Englandâs ceremonial dance. For centuries it offered villagers occasional respite from their annual round of drudgery and deference, but as their material circumstances altered, their recreations changed. In the early 1900s, when morris had almost disappeared, folklorists attempted to document and conserve what remained. They secured a niche for it in England and introduced it to North America despite the absence of a vernacular morris tradition there.
Much cultural baggage carried by English-speaking migrants survived the Atlantic crossing. Robin Hood ballads circulated alongside tributes to Jesse James, while English country dances remained popularâeven if the folk dance Sir Roger de Coverley was rebranded as the Virginia reel.3 Sir Humphrey Gilbertâs 1583 expedition allegedly brought âMusike in good variety not omitting the least toyes, as Morris dancers, Hobby horses, and Maylike conceits to delight the Savage people.â4 Yet morris never took root; though a few nineteenth-century American publications mentioned it briefly as a novelty item in theatrical productions.5 Twentieth-century English visitors launched what some call the American morris revival, although one participant firmly rejected that label, stating that âthe vast majority of these men and women now dancing in the US have never been to England to watch Morris dancing. They do it because it seems to fill a place in their lives rather than because it comes from England. They are not reviving anything [emphasis added].â6
But if not a ârevival,â what is it? Any definition raises difficulties since the term âmorrisâ is an umbrella covering numerous activities and controversies. For the moment, therefore, internal differences will be disregarded while an attempt is made to locate the movement on a wider historical canvas. In many cultures people wearing unusual costumes occasionally invade public spaces to indulge in exuberant behavior.7 Events such as the Rio Carnival or the New Orleans Mardi Gras are familiar to global audiences.8 Others, for example the Palio in Siena or Bonfire Night in Lewes, arouse intense passions locally while remaining relatively unknown elsewhere.9 It seems that their roots reach far into our collective past. Written and pictorial sources covering a considerable span of time and space recorded festivities or rituals in which humans wore animal masks, skins, or horns.10 Such behavior seems to have been common throughout medieval Europe, and despite hostility from the clergy, it continued into the modern era.11
The blurring of boundaries between animal and humankind occurs in carnival costumes worldwide, while Dick Whittingtonâs cat and Idle Jackâs cow still feature in Britainâs Christmas pantomimes alongside the âDameâ and her foolish son, who preserve parallel traditions of festive transgression.12 Beyond our theater walls, civic spaces become playgrounds for eccentrically dressed revelers celebrating âstagâ (bachelor) and âhenâ(bachelorette) nights. Also visible there are morris dancers, often accompanied by a hobbyhorse or similar man-animal figure. âHorse-playâ has been a term for disorderly behavior since 1590.13 Such activities appear to express a fundamental need. The Dutch historian Johan Huizinga suggested that we should call our species homo ludens, or the animal that plays, and described dancing as âpure play, the most perfect form of play that exists.â14 More recently Barbara Ehrenreich argued, âTo submit, bodily, to the music through dance is to be incorporated into the community in a way far deeper than shared myth or common custom.â15 The archaeologist Steven Mithen claimed that dancing contributed significantly to our ancestorsâ mental and social development after they adopted bipedalism.16 It is against this background that the history of morris should be examined.
THE RISE AND FALL OF MORRIS: FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE GREAT WAR
In 1448 Londonâs Company of Goldsmiths paid âmoryssh daunsersâ to entertain at their feast. Although no earlier references survive, this was probably not the debut performance of Englandâs first morris side. Similarly a will dated 1458 mentioned a silver cup decorated with a âmoreys daunce,â but the cup has been lost, and we have no idea when it was made.17 The earliest sources did not describe the dance. A stained-glass window, probably made after 1550, is informative about costumeâthe bells are clearly visibleâbut reveals little about choreography. A painting from around 1620 is more helpful but leaves some questions unanswered.18 The origins of morris therefore remain obscure. Some thought that this English dance copied older Spanish ones featuring mock combats between Christians and Moors, perhaps arriving via Italy, France, the Netherlands, or Germany, where variantsâMoresca, Mourisque, Moresk, Mohrentanz, respectivelyâwere known. Others have argued that an indigenous English dance became known as âMoorishâ because its performers sometimes disguised their faces with soot or ash.19
Contemporaries would have been sensitive to this resemblance. Until the mid-1600s Corsairs frequently raided English coastal villages and carried off residents to slavery in North Africa.20 However, although actors representing Moors appeared in court masques, they seem to have had no direct link with morris.21 The âblacking upâ revived by some modern morris sides may be a nineteenth-century addition, borrowed from the May Day dances of English chimney sweeps or from American minstrel troupes. Some early twentieth-century folklorists believed that morris was a vestige of an ancient pagan rite; this thesis has been demolished by recent scholarship, although it is still popular with modern pagans.22 It is probably safest to say that while most cultures have niches where people can fool about in fancy dress, we have no idea why the English chose morris dancing to occupy theirs.
Whatever its origins, the dance was often performed before Henry VII and Henry VIII between the 1490s and the 1520s. Thereafter it lost favor at court but still appeared in civic pageants and entertainments at wealthy households.23 By the 1590s it was a feature of village festivities, and authors of Shakespeareâs era associated it with rustic merrymaking.24 The dancers often had one or more eccentric companions, such as a clown (the âFoolâ), a hobbyhorse, or a man in womanâs clothing, all of whom featured in other seasonal festive customs involving role reversal and âmisrule.â25 Puritans condemned such activities as disorderly and ungodly, suppressing them wherever they could.26 When the âMerry Monarchâ Charles II returned to England in May 1660, Maypoles and morris dancing were prominent in the celebrations.27
English laborers performed morris dances throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Several regional variants appeared, including the handkerchief-waving and stick-clashing dances of the South Midlands (Cotswold Morris); the processional and garland dances of Lancashire and Cheshire (North-West Morris); the âBedlamâ dances of Shropshire, Herefordshire, and Worcestershire (Border Morris); and the âMollyâ dances of East Anglia. The sword dances of Northumberland, Durham, and North Yorkshire are generally included in the morris family, for though their origins may be different, the cultural niche they occupy is similar. The more recent âCarnivalâ morris dances of North West England too are regarded by some as a valid offshoot of the tradition, while oddities such as the Abbots Bromley Horn Dance from Staffordshire and the wood-gathering dance of Groveley Forest in Wiltshire are usually lumped with morris. Together they form a complex and occasionally contentious family.28
These dances were frequently associated with specific festivals such as New Year, Plough Monday, May Day, or Whitsun but might have been performed to earn money whenever paid work was scarce. They disappeared from many communities between 1850 and 1900, as rural depopulation reduced the pool of potential dancers while clergy and magistrates condemned the drinking and disorderly behavior that often accompanied the dancing.29 Twentieth-century enthusiasts began collecting and performing the surviving dances, and in 1911 they acquired an institutional base when Cecil Sharp founded the English Folk Dance Society (EFDS).30 Morris was featured in celebrations for the coronation of George V and in Stratford-upon-Avon on Shakespeareâs birthday.31 By 1914 it was also, rather surprisingly, gaining support in America.
âHERITAGEâ: ITS USES AND ABUSES
The creation of the United States of America left a legacy of resentment. Thousands of colonists who had supported the losing side escaped reprisals by fleeing to Cana...