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Smarter Than You Think
How Technology is Changing Our Minds for the Better
Clive Thompson
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eBook - ePub
Smarter Than You Think
How Technology is Changing Our Minds for the Better
Clive Thompson
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Chapter 1: The Rise of the Centaurs
1. In the eighteenth century, Wolfgang von Kempelen caused a stir: Tom Standage, The Turk: The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth-Century Chess-Playing Machine (New York: Walker Publishing Company, 2002), 22â28, 102â19, 194â221.
2. In 1915, a Spanish inventor unveiled a genuine, honest-to-goodness robot: âTorres and His Remarkable Automatic Devices,â Scientific American Supplement, No. 2079 (November 6, 1915): 296â98.
3. Faced with a machine that could calculate two hundred million positions a second: âDeep Blue,â IBM, accessed March 19, 2013, www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/.
4. âI lost my fighting spiritâ: Bruce Weber, âSwift and Slashing, Computer Topples Kasparov,â The New York Times, May 12, 1997, accessed March 19, 2013, www.nytimes.com/1997/05/12/nyregion/swift-and-slashing-computer-topples-kasparov.html.
5. âemptied completelyâ: Frederic Friedel, âGarry Kasparov vs. Deep Blue,â ChessBase, May 1997, accessed March 19, 2013, www.chessbase.com/columns/column.asp?pid=146.
6. âThe Brainâs Last Standâ: Newsweek, May 5, 1997.
7. Doomsayers predicted that chess itself was over: Garry Kasparov, âThe Chess Master and the Computer,â The New York Review of Books, February 11, 2010, accessed March 19, 2013, www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/feb/11/the-chess-master-and-the-computer/.
8. Then Kasparov did something unexpected: Portions of my writing on advanced chess appeared in Clive Thompson, âThe Cyborg Advantage,â Wired, April 2010, accessed March 21, 2013, www.wired.com/magazine/2010/03/st_thompson_cyborgs/.
9. Chess grand masters had predicted for years: Kasparov, âThe Chess Master and the Computer.â
10. Human chess players learn by spending years studying: Garry Kasparov, How Life Imitates Chess: Making the Right Moves, from the Board to the Boardroom (New York: Bloomsbury, 2010), Kindle edition.
11. If you go eight moves out in a game of chess: Kasparov, âThe Chess Master and the Computer.â
12. âOne, the best oneâ: Diego Rasskin-Gutman, Chess Metaphors: Artificial Intelligence and the Human Mind, trans. Deborah Klosky (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), 50.
13. Together, they would form what chess players later called a centaur ⊠fought Kasparov to a 3â3 draw: Kasparov, How Life Imitates Chess, Kindle edition.
14. In 2005, there was a âfreestyleâ chess tournament: My account of the 2005 âfreestyleâ chess tournament comes from personal interviews with Steven Cramton and Zackary Stephen, as well as these reports: Kasparov, How Life Imitates Chess; Kasparov, âThe Chess Master and the Computerâ; Steven Cramton and Zackary Stephen, âThe Dark Horse Theory,â Chess Horizons, OctoberâDecember 2005, 17â20, 40, accessed March 19, 2013, masschess.org/Chess_Horizons/Articles/2005-10_sample.pdf; âPAL / CSS report from the dark horseâs mouth,â ChessBase, June 6, 2005, accessed March 19, 2013, en.chessbase.com/home/TabId/211/PostId/4002467.
15. Hydra, the most powerful chess computer in existence: My description of Hydra comes from an e-mail interview with Hydraâs creator, Chrilly Donninger, and the following reports: Tom Mueller, âYour Move,â The New Yorker, December 12, 2005, 62â69; Jon Speelman, âChess,â The Observer (UK), July 3, 2005, 19; Dylan Loeb McClain, âIn Chess, Masters Again Fight Machines,â The New York Times, June 21, 2005, accessed March 19, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2005/06/21/arts/21mast.html.
16. with software you could buy for sixty dollars: Mueller, âYour Move,â 65.
17. The âextended mindâ theory of cognition ⊠short-term memory: I owe much of my discussion of the extended mind to the work of Andy Clark, specifically Natural-Born Cyborgs: Minds, Technologies, and the Future of Human Intelligence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Supersizing the Mind: Embodiment, Action, and Cognitive Extension (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); and a personal interview with the author.
18. âThese resources enable us to pursueâ: Andy Clark, âMagic Words: How Language Augments Human Computation,â in Language and Thought: Interdisciplinary Themes, eds. Peter Carruthers and Jill Boucher (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 173.
19. âI actually did the work on the paperâ: Clark, Supersizing the Mind, xxv.
20. The printed word helped make our cognition linear and abstract: Walter Ong, Orality and Literacy (New York: Routledge, 2010). Iâm thinking specifically about his argument in the chapter âWriting Restructures Consciousness,â 77â114.
21. âIt is impossible that old prejudices and hostilities should longer existâ: Charles F. Briggs and Augustus Maverick, The Story of the Telegraph, and a History of the Great Atlantic Cable (New York: Rudd & Carleton, 1858), 22. Accessed March 19, 2013, via Google Books, books.google.com/books?id=NFVHAAAAIAAJ.
22. âWe are eager to tunnel under the Atlanticâ: Henry D. Thoreau, Walden: A Fully Annotated Edition, ed. Jeffrey S. Cramer (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 50â51.
23. called this the bias of a new tool: Harold Innis, The Bias of Communication, introduction by Alexander John Watson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008).
24. âtools for thoughtâ: Rheingold introduced the term in his 1985 book of that title, reprinted in 2000: Howard Rheingold, Tools for Thought: The History and Future of Mind-Expanding Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).
25. âThe future is already hereâ: Garson OâToole, âThe Future Has ArrivedâItâs Just Not Evenly Distributed Yet,â Quote Investigator, January 24, 2012, accessed March 19, 2013, quoteinvestigator.com/2012/01/24/future-has-arrived/.
26. âthat horrible mass of books which keeps on growing ⊠return to barbarismâ: Blair, Too Much to Know, Kindle edition.
27. In the sixteenth century, humanity faced: My analysis of early publishing here owes much to Ann Blairâs book Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), Kindle edition, and a personal interview with the author.
28. âIâm not thinking the way I used to thinkâ: Nicholas Carr, The Shallows (New York: Norton, 2010), 5.
29. precisely why societies have engineered massive social institutions: I owe this point to Stephen Pinker, âMind over Mass Media,â The New York Times, June 10, 2010, last accessed March 19, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2010/06/11/opinion/11Pinker.html.
30. âThere will eventually be neuroscientific explanationsâ: Gary Marcus, âNeuroscience Fiction,â News Desk (a New Yorker blog), Dec. 2, 2012, accessed March 19, 2013, www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2012/12/what-neuroscience-really-teaches-us-and-what-it-doesnt.html.
31. a single brain-scanning study that specifically probed how peopleâs brains respond to using the Web: Carr, The Shallows, 120â22.
32. team...