Periodic Table Organization

12 Key excerpts on "Periodic Table Organization"

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  The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements

  A Reference Guide

  • Robert E. Krebs(Author)
  • 2006(Publication Date)
  • Greenwood

    (Publisher)

  t h r e e The Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements History Without a doubt, the periodic table of the chemical elements is the most elegant organiza- tional chart ever devised. Conceptually, many individuals recognized that certain chemical ele- ments have similar characteristics to other chemical elements before the table was developed. This was accepted even though the atoms of a particular element are different from atoms of related elements. How do we determine what the relationships of these similar characteristics are when compared with different elements? The periodic table of the chemical elements is organized as a matrix of rows of horizontal “periods” that list the elements in their increasing atomic numbers and, generally, according to their atomic weights. For instance, the fourth row in the table is period 4 and starts with group 1 or (1A) element 19 K (potassium with 19 protons in is nucleus) and continues through element 36 Kr (krypton with 36 protons in its nucleus) in group 18 or (VIIIA). (There are two different numbering systems used for identifying the groups in the table. This is explained in the section on the periodic table.) Historically, the elements in periods 2 and 4 were identified as repeating their characteristics after eight elements, each increasing in their atomic weights, thus forming a new period. This was known as the “octet rule.” The matrix also includes vertical columns in which elements are arranged somewhat according to similarities between their chemical and physical properties and those properties of the elements located just above and below them in the column, or “group.” Thus, the three somewhat similar elements in a group might be thought of as a “triad.” A number of prominent chemists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries con- tributed to the development of the periodic table of the chemical elements. These scientists arranged, listed, and categorized various chemicals according to observed properties.

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  General Chemistry for Engineers

  • Jeffrey Gaffney, Nancy Marley(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Elsevier

    (Publisher)

  An understanding of this periodicity of the chemical properties of the elements allowed chemists to predict how elements would combine and how they would behave when reacting with other elements. The development of the Periodic Table of the Elements can thus be compared to the discovery of the “Rosetta Stone,” which provided the key to the translation of ancient languages into modern text and for the first time allowed scholars to be able to understand the meaning of ancient documents. Similarly, the periodic table effectively organizes the elements into classes according to their electronic configurations, providing the key to understanding and predicting the chemical behavior of the elements. In order to effectively use the periodic table to predict chemical properties and behavior of the elements, it is important to first know how its structure relates to electronic configurations.

  The general layout of the modern periodic table is shown in Fig. 1.12 . It arranges the elements in vertical columns called groups. There are 18 groups in the periodic table numbered 1–18. Elements in the same group generally share the same chemical properties with clear trends associated with increasing atomic number going down a group. Some groups are known by family names to indicate the similar properties that they share. Group 1 is called the alkali metals (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium, and francium). Group 2 is known as the alkaline earth metals (beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium). Group 17 is the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine) and group 18 is the noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). Elements in groups 3–12 are known collectively as the transition metals.

  The elements are also arranged in seven horizontal rows called periods because the periodic properties of the elements increase systematically with increasing atomic number going across a row. There are seven periods in the periodic table numbered 1–7. The number of each period corresponds to the principal quantum number of the outermost electron shell containing electrons for all elements in the period. So, the elements in period 1 contain electrons only in the n  = 1 shell, while the elements in period 2 contain electrons in the n  = 1 and n  = 2 shells, and elements in period 3 contain electrons in the n

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  Chemistry for Today

  General, Organic, and Biochemistry

  • Spencer Seager, Michael Slabaugh, Maren Hansen, , Spencer Seager, Spencer Seager, Michael Slabaugh, Maren Hansen(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Scientists looked for order in these facts, with the hope of providing a systematic approach to the study of chemistry. Two scientists independently, and almost simultaneously, made the same important contribution to this end. Julius Lothar Meyer, a German, and Dimitri Mendeleev (see Figure 3.1), a Russian, each produced classification schemes separately for the elements in 1869. Both schemes were based on the periodic law, which in its present form is stated as follows: When all the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers, elements with similar chemical properties will occur at regular (periodic) intervals. A convenient way to compactly represent such behavior is to use tables. The arrange- ment of the elements in a table based on the periodic law is called a periodic table. In modern periodic table, such as the one inside the front cover of this book, elements with similar chemical properties are found in vertical columns called groups or families. In this book, the groups are designated in two ways. In the U.S. system, a Roman numeral and letter, such as IIA, is used. In the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry sys- tem, a simple number, such as 2, is used. Both designations appear on the periodic table inside the front cover of this book, with the IUPAC number in parentheses. We will generally refer to groups in the text by using both the U.S. system and the IUPAC system. Thus, a reference to the second group would be given as group IIA(2), where we have put the IUPAC number in parentheses. The horizontal rows in the table are called periods and are numbered from top to bottom. Thus, each element belongs to both a period and a group of the periodic table. periodic law A statement about the behavior of the elements when they are arranged in a specific order.

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  Collected Papers On The Philosophy Of Chemistry

  • Eric R Scerri(Author)
  • 2008(Publication Date)
  • ICP

    (Publisher)

  Section B The Periodic Table, Electronic Configurations and the Nature of the Elements This page intentionally left blank This page intentionally left blank ERIC R. SCERRI HAS THE PERIODIC TABLE BEEN SUCCESSFULLY AXTOMATIZED? ABSTRACT. Although the periodic system of elements is central to the study of chemistry and has been influential in the development of quantum theory and quantum mechanics, its study has been largely neglected in philosophy of science. The present article is a detailed criticism of one notable exception, an attempt by Hettema and Kuipers to axiomatize the periodic table and to discuss the reduction of chemistry in this context. 1. HISTORICAL PRELUDE AND THE TREATMENT OF THE PERIODIC SYSTEM AND TABLE IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL LITERATURE The Periodic Table of the elements has had a profound influence on the development of modem chemistry and physics. In chemistry its influence is well known and undeniable. The periodic system functions as a unifying principle which continues to guide the day-to-day research of chemists in many specialized areas. The influence of the periodic table on the develop- ment of physics and in particular quantum mechanics is not so well known but equally undeniable. Shortly after the turn of the century, J. J. Thomson, the discoverer of the electron, regarded the question of trying to explain the periodic table through atomic physics as one of the major unsolved problems. In 1904 he tried to account for the periodicity of the elements in terms of the arrangement of electrons in rings. Thomson proposed a detailed set of atomic configurations as part of his plumb pudding model in which electrons were embedded in the main body of the atoms and were held to circulate in concentric rings (Thomson, 1904).

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  Important Concepts and Applications of Atomic Physics and Quantum Chemistry

  • (Author)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Learning Press

    (Publisher)

  ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter- 7 Periodic Table The periodic table of the chemical elements (also periodic table of the elements or just the periodic table ) is a tabular display of the chemical elements. Although pre-cursors to this table exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior. The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing a useful framework to classify, systematize, and compare all of the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has found many applications in chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering, especially chemical engineering. The current standard table contains 118 elements to date. (elements 1–118). Structure Group # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Period 1 1 H 2 He 2 3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne 3 11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar 4 19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr 5 37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 53 I 54 Xe 6 55 Cs 56 Ba * 72 Hf 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn 7 87 Fr 88 Ra ** 104 Rf 105 Db 106 Sg 107 Bh 108 Hs 109 Mt 110 Ds 111 Rg 112 Cn 113 Uut 114 Uuq 115 Uup 116 Uuh 117 Uus 118 Uuo

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  Foundations of College Chemistry

  • Morris Hein, Susan Arena, Cary Willard(Authors)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  In Period 3, electrons are found in levels 1, 2, 3, and so on. Elements that behave in a similar manner are found in groups or families. These form the vertical columns on the periodic table. Two systems exist for numbering the groups. In one system, the columns are numbered from left to right using the numbers 1–18. The A groups are known as the representative elements. The B groups are called the transition elements. In this book we will focus on the representative elements. The groups (columns) of the periodic table often have family names. For example, the group on the far right side of the periodic table (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) is called the noble gases. Group 1A(1) is called the alkali metals, Group 2A(2) the alkaline earth metals, and Group 7A(17) the halogens. How is the structure of the periodic table related to the atomic structures of the elements? We’ve just seen that the periods of the periodic table are associated with the energy level of the outermost electrons of the atoms in that period. Look at the valence electron configurations of the elements we have just examined (FIGURE 10.15). Do you see a pattern? The valence electron configuration for the elements in each column is the same. The chemical behavior and properties of elements in a particular family must therefore be associated with the electron configuration of the elements. The number for the principal energy level is different. This is expected since each new period is associ- ated with a different energy level for the valence electrons. The electron configurations for elements beyond these first 18 become long and tedious to write. We often abbreviate the electron configuration using the following notation: Na [Ne]3s 1 Look carefully at Figure 10.15 and you will see that the p orbitals are full at the noble gases.

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  Foundations of College Chemistry

  • Morris Hein, Susan Arena, Cary Willard(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Mike Walker Photography 10.5 Electron Structures and the Periodic Table 219 energy level that contains electrons for elements in that period. Those in Period 1 contain electrons only in energy level 1, while those in Period 2 contain electrons in levels 1 and 2. In Period 3, electrons are found in levels 1, 2, 3, and so on. Elements that behave in a similar manner are found in groups or families. These form the vertical columns on the periodic table. Two systems exist for numbering the groups. In one system, the columns are numbered from left to right using the numbers 1–18. In the second system, the columns are placed into two numbered groups. The A groups are known as the representative elements. The B groups are called the transition elements. In this book we will focus on the representative elements. The groups (columns) of the periodic table often have family names. For example, the group on the far right side of the periodic table (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) is called the noble gases. Group 1A(1) (see note) is called the alkali metals, Group 2A(2) the alkaline earth metals, and Group 7A(17) the halogens. How is the structure of the periodic table related to the atomic structures of the ele- ments? We’ve just seen that the periods of the periodic table are associated with the energy level of the outermost electrons of the atoms in that period. Look at the valence electron configurations of the elements we have just examined (Figure 10.15). Do you see a pattern? The valence electron configuration for the elements in each column is the same. The chemi- cal behavior and properties of elements in a particular family must therefore be associated with the electron configuration of the elements. The number for the principal energy level is different. This is expected since each new period is associated with a different energy level for the valence electrons. The electron configurations for elements beyond these first 18 become long and tedious to write.

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  The Periodic Table

  A visual guide to the elements

  • Tom Jackson(Author)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • White Lion Publishing

    (Publisher)

  How the Table Works | 17 ELECTRON SHELLS The electrons are arranged in shells around the nucleus. Each shell can hold a specific number of electrons. OUTER ELECTRONS In most atoms, the outer electron shell is not full. The number of electrons in the outer shell gives the atom its properties. PERIODS Elements in the same row, or period, have the same number of electron shells in their atoms. Period one contains two elements, because the first electron shell has room for two electrons. Period two contains eight elements, because the second electron shell holds eight electrons. The third shell can hold 18 electrons, but only the first eight spaces fill up to start with. The remaining ones only fill up once the first two have entered the fourth shell. This creates the central sections, or series, of elements. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 110 Ds DARMSTADTIUM 111 Rg ROENTGENIUM 112 Cn COPERNICIUM 113 Nh NIHONIUM 114 Fl FLEROVIUM 115 Mc MOSCOVIUM 116 Lv LIVERMORIUM 117 Ts TENNESSINE 118 Og OGANESSON 78 Pt PLATINUM 79 Au GOLD 80 Hg MERCURY 81 TI THALLIUM 82 Pb LEAD 83 Bi BISMUTH 84 Po POLONIUM 85 At ASTATINE 86 Rn RADON 46 Pd PALLADIUM 47 Ag SILVER 48 Cd CADMIUM 49 In INDIUM 50 Sn TIN 51 Sb ANTIMONY 52 Te TELLURIUM 53 I IODINE 54 Xe XENON 28 Ni NICKEL 29 Cu COPPER 30 Zn ZINC 31 Ga GALLIUM 32 Ge GERMANIUM 33 As ARSENIC 34 Se SELENIUM 35 Br BROMINE 36 Kr KRYPTON 13 Al ALUMINIUM 14 Si SILICON 15 P PHOSPHORUS 16 S SULPHUR 17 Cl CHLORINE 18 Ar ARGON 5 B BORON 6 C CARBON 7 N NITROGEN 8 O OXYGEN 9 F FLUORINE 10 Ne NEON 2 He HELIUM 63 Eu EUROPIUM 64 Gd GADOLINIUM 65 Tb TERBIUM 95 Am AMERICIUM 96 Cm CURIUM 97 Bk BERKELIUM 1 18 | The Periodic Table GROUP 1 Group 1 is also called the alkali metals. It includes sodium, potassium and other reactive metals. The metallic Group 1 elements react violently with water and can catch fire when exposed to the air. They are stored in oil to prevent explosions. From the Latin lithos , meaning ‘stone’.

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  Principles of Inorganic Chemistry

  • Brian W. Pfennig(Author)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  In the modern era, it is almost impossible to believe that there was ever a time when the periodic nature of the elements was not yet fully understood. The first primitive form of the periodic table was developed in 1829 by Johann Döbereiner, who noticed a repetitive pattern in the chemical properties of some of the elements, lumping them together in groups of three which he called triads. The elements chlorine, bromine, and iodine, for instance, formed a triad because they all reacted in a similar way with the element sodium. In 1865, the Englishman John Newlands recognized that if the elements were listed in order of their increasing atomic weights, they could be arranged into what he called the “law of octaves” (or groups of eight) according to their chemical properties. However, it was not until 1869, when the Russian schoolteacher Dmitri Mendeleev gave a presentation to the Russian Chemical Society entitled “A Dependence Principles of Inorganic Chemistry, Second Edition. Brian W. Pfennig. © 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/pfennig/inorgchem2 between the Properties of the Atomic Weights of the Elements” that the idea of periodic trends among the various elements really began to take hold. Mendeleev had written out the physical properties of all the known elements on cards and arranged them into groups based on their trends in a popular card game at the time called “Patience.” Mendeleev’s blueprint for the periodicity of the elements ultimately became the standard because he left gaps in the table for elements that had not yet been discovered. When these elements were eventually found, their properties fit neatly into place, cementing the periodic table as one of the most valuable predictive tools in the history of chemistry.

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  The Chemical Element

  A Historical Perspective

  • Andrew G. Ede(Author)
  • 2006(Publication Date)
  • Greenwood

    (Publisher)

  8 SEEKING ORDER: THE PERIODIC TABLE One of the primary themes of matter theory over the generations has been making order out of what appeared to be disordered or chaotic. By 1860, the number of compounds known to chemists was growing rapidly and would continue to grow at an ever fast pace, particularly as organic chemistry began to introduce new products such as aniline dyes and synthetic drugs. Depending on the philosophical position of the chemist, the number of true elements was also growing. Although not all chemists felt that understanding the elements (if elements existed at all) would reveal the nature of complex compounds, most agreed that some system for describing and comparing substances was needed. Chemistry at the beginning of the nineteenth century was in a position anal- ogous to Ptolemaic astronomy. Around 100 C.E., Ptolemy created his astro- nomical system, which could be used to accurately chart the movement of all the visible planets, the sun, and the moon. His system worked perfectly well for navigation, time keeping, and all the other activities for which knowing the place of celestial objects was needed. Yet, Ptolemy’s system had a philosophi- cal problem. Each of the planets had its own system of movement, and the laws of planetary motion were different from those that governed motion on the Earth. Newton’s astronomy and physics put all the planets, the stars, and motion here on Earth into a single system. In chemistry, each element, like the Ptolemaic planets, seemed to have its own characteristics. Chemists had hoped for generations that there would be a unifying system for matter that would be the equivalent of Newton’s phys- ics, but if there was a unifying principle, it was proving difficult to determine. Even among the elements, there were huge apparent differences. The nature of the elements seemed so varied as to defy easy comparison.

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  Understanding Chemistry

  • C N R Rao(Author)
  • 2009(Publication Date)
  • World Scientific

    (Publisher)

  2 ELEMENTS AND THE PERIODIC TABLE 90 Understanding Chemistry 2.1 Modern concept of elements By 1661, the fundamental difference between a mixture and a chemical compound had been understood. Robert Boyle pointed out how Aristotle ’ s concept of elements was wrong. Objectives There are millions of substances of different compositions and properties. They can be present in the form of solids, liquids and gases. However, the amazing fact is that these millions of substances are varied combinations of less than 100 naturally occurring elements. Up to the 16 th century, only 10 elements were known. • In this lesson, we examine how our knowledge of the elements has developed over a period of time and learn to describe the elements in terms of the electronic structure of atoms. We then try to understand the classification of elements, and how efforts to classify gave birth to the periodic table. • We discuss the important features of the modern periodic table and see how it provides a basis to explain and predict properties of substances. We also make use of this lesson to follow some aspects of the history of chemistry. Mercury Hg Silver Ag Iron Fe Copper Cu Gold Au Tin Sn Carbon C Lead Pb Antimony Sb Sulfur S Elements and the periodic table 91 • they could not combine to form other substances and • they could not be separated or extracted from other substances. Boyle emphasized the importance of the physical properties of the elements. According to Boyle, elements • were simple, unmixed bodies. • were not made up of other similar or dissimilar bodies. • were unique substances. From this time on, the term element meant a material substance.

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  Comparative Inorganic Chemistry

  • Bernard Moody(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Arnold

    (Publisher)

  A minority of authors prefer to list transitional elements exclusively as B subgroups and therefore the normal elements as A subgroups. Thus Ilia to Vila inclusive become Illb to Vllb respectively and vice versa. However, this is not very important because it is customary to indicate the composition of a family of elements by giving at least the first-named element. Finally, it may be mentioned that some have argued for 18 groups, there being eighteen places (excluding lanthanides and actinides) in the longest periods of the Periodic Table. The construction of the Periodic Table from electronic configurations Hydrogen has the simplest atom, the most abun-dant isotope having a nucleus of one proton with one electron outside it. From this simplest of structures, by the addition at each step of one proton to the nucleus and one external electron, with the appropriate number of neutrons to provide its isotopic mass, the atom of any element may be formed in theory. Chemical character depends on electronic configuration. Periods 1, 2 and 3 The K shell may have one or two electrons only. It is expanded during the formation of atoms of the elements hydrogen and helium, the only members of period 1. Hydrogen, which is quite unlike any other element, has sometimes been placed by itself above the table, or even included above fluorine, F, as well as above lithium, Li. The lithium atom, which has three electrons, has a completed K shell of two and a new shell, L, start-ing with one electron. The elements beryllium to fluorine, of atomic numbers 4-9 inclusive, have progressively extra electrons in the L shell until neon is reached. At this element, both K and L shells are full. The M shell commences with sodium, which has eleven electrons, one more than can be accom-modated in the K and L shells of its atoms. This shell is built up steadily until argon is reached, all elements being placed in the third period. The development of the first three periods is shown in Table 3.6.

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