Geography
Environmental Sampling Methods
Environmental sampling methods are techniques used to collect data on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the environment. These methods include soil sampling, water sampling, air sampling, and vegetation sampling. They are essential for understanding the quality and health of ecosystems, identifying pollution sources, and assessing environmental impacts.
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10 Key excerpts on "Environmental Sampling Methods"
eBook - ePub- S. Mitra, B.B. Kebbekus(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
2 Environmental SamplingWe might imagine a satellite which could scan the earth’s surface and provide a complete analysis of every part of the environment. This is, of course, in the realm of science fiction. Instead, we must collect representative samples of a small part of the environment in which we are interested, and analyze these to provide information about the composition of the area. For example, it is obviously impossible to analyze all the water in a lake, so portions of the water must be collected and analyzed to determine the true concentrations of materials in the lake. Similarly, to study contamination around a leaking underground gasoline tank, numerous soil samples are needed to map the extent of the pollution.We must keep in mind that only a small amount of sample (a few grams or milliliters) may be collected from a vast heterogeneous area. It is imperative that the samples collected represent the environment as accurately as possible. Major decisions are based on the results of the analyses. The steps involved in environmental sampling are:• Development of a sampling plan, including where and when samples will be collected and the number of samples required.• Collection of the samples.• Preservation of samples during transportation and storage.2.1The Sampling PlanThe importance of good sampling cannot be overstressed. The sample is the source of information about the environment. If it is not collected properly, if it does not represent the system we are trying to analyze, then all our careful laboratory work is useless. Care must be taken to avoid the introduction of bias or error.Sampling is done for monitoring purposes, as well as for research. Data may be collected to monitor air and water effluents or to characterize pollutant levels in environmental media (air, water, soil, biota). The objectives may be to comply with regulatory requirements, to identify long- and short-term trends, to detect accidental releases, or to develop a database or inventory of pollutant levels. Research may involve studying the fate and transport of pollutants or identifying pollutant exposures for humans and animals. It is important to design these studies scientifically so that they are cost effective and generate statistically significant information.
eBook - PDF- Akansha Singh, Esha Rami, Akansha Singh, Esha Rami(Authors)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Delve Publishing(Publisher)
6.3. Environmental Sampling Methods Direct observation is one of the most common methods of environmental sampling. It involves taking measurements that are visible to the naked eye, such as temperature or humidity, and comparing them against known measurements taken at other times or in other places. This method can be effective when you need to measure something that has already been established as important like water quality but not so effective if you’re trying to establish a baseline for something new like pollution. Samples of soil and water can be collected by digging holes in the ground or using specialized equipment like pumps and filters (Gotelli et al., 2012). The samples can then be analyzed for chemicals, bacteria, or other substances Environmental Sampling 137 that might affect humans’ health or safety. Radiation levels can also be measured using specialized equipment like Geiger counters. The most common methods of environmental sampling include: • Air Sampling: This involves collecting a sample of air from different areas for analysis. For example, it can be used to determine if there are any chemicals present in the air or if there are any unusual odors that may indicate a problem with pollution. • Soil Sampling: Soil samples are collected from different locations to analyze them for contaminants and other issues that could affect plant life in the area. They can also be used to determine if any harmful substances are being released into the environment by nearby businesses or factories. • Water Sampling: Water samples can be taken from lakes, streams, rivers, and other bodies of water to evaluate their quality and detect any contaminants that may be present in them. There are two main types of environmental sampling: physical and chemical. Physical sampling involves taking a sample from an area of concern and analyzing it for contaminants.
eBook - ePubField Sampling
Principles and Practices in Environmental Analysis
- Alfred R. Conklin, Jr.(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
5Sampling
When sampling, local rules apply. No single, simple set of guidelines is applicable to all sampling situations. General sampling principles will need to be adapted for each field and sampling situation.When sampling, it is important to first keep general sampling basics in mind. The most important of these is that the environment changes over distance and time. The second is that information about a field may be obtained either without (noninvasive) or with (invasive) sampling; in either situation, it is essential to know beforehand from where the samples are to be taken. This information is essential because it is used when relating the sample to the whole environment. It is also critical if we wish or need to sample this same field again at a later date or to remediate it. All data must be readily available, and thus it is essential to have a place to put field data, such as a map of the area, a project notebook, a computer, or all three.Data about a field can be obtained by both noninvasive and invasive sampling. Noninvasive sampling is carried out using ground-penetrating radar (GPR), remote sensing, or other noninvasive technologies. Invasive sampling is accomplished using hand- or machine-driven samplers that extract a portion of the medium about which we wish to obtain information.The sample thus obtained is subjected to laboratory analysis. Both methods are valuable and sometimes essential in field sampling. Both have limitations, and the best sampling results are obtained when all ways of investigating the medium of concern are used. In all cases knowing the location of sampling activities is essential. Determining the location is best done using a global positioning system (GPS). Because of its importance, GPS will be discussed before examining either noninvasive or invasive sampling.
eBook - PDF- Pavel P. Povinec, Pavel Povinec, M. Baxter(Authors)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- Elsevier Science(Publisher)
Therefore the definition of sampling as the process of gaining information about a population from a portion of that population called a sample ( Hassig et al., 2004 ) is more universal and acceptable. The sampling is the foundation block on which any analytical result is built. Without re-liable out-of-lab and in-lab sampling plans no quality assurance of results can be achieved. Most traditional strategies of environmental sampling were implanted from the field of geo-chemical assay, which should provide precise information on the ore and other raw material resources within the area designed for exploitation ( Journel and Huijbregts, 1978; Isaaks and Srivastava, 1989 ). Even more, the same random sampling tests are incorrectly applied in the same way as in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry where their goals are to provide evidence of declared identity and homogeneity of the whole batch sampled ( Duncan, 1986; Schilling, 1982 ). For such purposes the reliable statistical standards are well elaborated ( ISO, 1991, 1995, 2000, 2001; ASTM, 2002 ). Specific sampling analysis plans are necessary for sur-vey of the environment where the field is random by its nature ( Gilbert, 1987; Cressie, 1993; Myers, 1997; Byrnes, 2000; USACE, 2001; EPA, 2001 ). The MARSSIM (the EPA’s Multi-Agency Radiation Surveys and Site Investigations Manual) guide focuses specifically on residual radioactive contamination in surface soils and on building surfaces ( EPA, 2002a, 2002b, 2002c, 2002d ). The natural and industrialized environment is neither homogeneous nor unchanging. Even the most illusive homogeneous system like the atmosphere is in fact a colloidal/particulate system—typical indoor air contains about 10 7 –10 8 particles in the 0.5 to 100 μm size range per cubic meter.
eBook - PDFSpatial Statistics
GeoSpatial Information Modeling and Thematic Mapping
- Mohammed A. Kalkhan(Author)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
landscape.area.(forest,.vegetation,.rangeland,.etc .) .as.well.as.the.procedure. for. taking. measurements. and. analyzing. the. results . . In. general,. two. sam-pling.categories.are.commonly.used: . 1 . .Probability. sampling—This. type. of. sampling. can. be. described. as. “the. probability. of. selecting. any. sampling. unit. is. assumed. to. be. known.prior.to.the.actual.sampling .” Data Sampling Methods and Applications 41 . a . . Simple.random.sampling.(with.and.without.replacement) . b . . Stratified.random.sampling . c . . Multistage.sampling . d . . Multiphase.(double).sampling . e . . Sampling.with.varying.probabilities . f . . Network.sampling.(rare.characteristics:.disease,.people,.patient. records,.etc .) . g . . Cluster.and.systematic.sampling . h . . Purposive.sampling.(random.selection.of.sample.units.with-out.replacement) . 2 . .Nonrandom. Sampling—This. sampling. can. be. described. as. “the. selection.of.sampling.units.are.not.governed.by.laws.of.chance.(no. probability,.not.subjective).but.is.done.systematically.or.using.per-sonal.judgment .” . a . . Selective.sampling—Personal.selection.of.sample . b . . Systematic.sampling—Sampling.units.are.spaced.at.fixed.inter-vals.throughout.the.population . c . . Purposive.(or.adaptive).sampling—Sample.with.a.purpose.in.mind Sampling Designs The. development. of. the. sampling. and. plot. designs. is. complicated. by. the. diversity.of.variables.and.indicators.to.be.assessed,.the.need.to.assess.the. landscape.scale.ecosystem.resources.at.a.range.of.scales,.the.need.to.monitor. the. indicators. over. time,. and. the. need. to. do. so. efficiently . .Sampling.tech-niques.commonly.used.to.assess.the.accuracy.of.a.classification.procedure. includes. simple. random. sampling,. systematic. sampling,. stratified. random. sampling,. and. cluster. sampling. (Congalton. 1991;. Kalkhan. 1994;. Kalkhan. et.al . .1997) . .Multiphase.(i .e., .double).sampling.is.also.used.to.assess.thematic.
eBook - PDF- (Author)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- Elsevier Science(Publisher)
51 CHAPTER 4 . SAMPLING I N ENVIRONEENTAL ANALYSIS This chapter deals with the practice of sampling the environment and the associated problems. The six matrices mentioned in chapter I , are examined separately. 52 4 . 1 . Introduction - Sampling is possibly the most critical step in the entire analytical process. Out of the environment one isolates a, usually tiny, fraction. Its composition then serves as a base for general conclusions on often considerable portions of our planet. Obviously the first re- quirement for n sample then is that it gives a true representation of the matrix which is sampled. This implies: (a) that one has a clear idea on the variation of the matrix composi- tion with position and time and, (b) that the sampling at a given position and time be reproducible. It follows immediately that the (systematic) variation with position and time as well as the (statistical) reproducibility of the sampling are relative notions only which depend on the precision of the sub- sequent treatment and analysis. The process of sampling and the subsequent storage inevitably involves the use of tools and often of transport vehicles too. These equipments are sources of contamination and losses. The second criterion for the sample is thus accuracy, defined as the absence of an appreciable sys- tematic bias. The word appreciable should be understood in terms of the standard deviations in the subsequent determinations, like dis- cussed in section 6.6. - The sampling process proper is often completed by some mechanical treatment like centrifugation, filtration, sedimentation or sieving, to separate the material into fractions.The step may follow the sam- pling immediately like in the case of airdust or performed separately as for water or silicates. In any event it constitutes a second source of risks which may affect both the requirements of representation and accuracy.
eBook - PDFData Collection in Fragile States
Innovations from Africa and Beyond
- Johannes Hoogeveen, Utz Pape(Authors)
- 2020(Publication Date)
- World Bank(Publisher)
103 1 Introduction Technological advances in geospatial data have the potential to change how survey data are collected. Long hampered by high costs, limited capacity, and difficulties in supervision, sample selection is often done using second-best or nonprobability approaches. As geospatial technol-ogy has improved and become more widespread, costs have come down and the number of available tools have increased, making Geographic Information Systems (GIS)-based sampling approaches accessible to more users. This chapter presents experiences with GIS-based sampling from three different settings: (i) where no sampling frame is present because the census is outdated; (ii) sampling pastoralist communities; and (iii) rapid listing of enumeration areas to reduce exposure of field 7 Methods of Geo-Spatial Sampling Stephanie Eckman and Kristen Himelein © International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 2020 J. Hoogeveen and U. Pape (eds.), Data Collection in Fragile States , https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25120-8_7 S. Eckman RTI International, Washington, DC, USA K. Himelein ( * ) World Bank, Washington, DC, USA e-mail: [email protected] 104 S. Eckman and K. Himelein teams. The case studies focus on extreme situations, particularly those in conflict-prone areas, as innovation often takes place when few other options are available. The applications discussed here, however, are applicable to many less extreme situations. 2 Data Challenge and Innovation #1: Creating a Sampling Frame in the Absence of a Census For many studies, no sampling frame of the target population is avail-able. The most common approach to addressing this problem for large-scale household surveys in the developing world is to use a strat-ified two-stage design. In the first stage, census enumeration areas are selected as the Primary Sampling Unit (PSU), using probability propor-tional to estimated size.
- Bryan F.J. Manly, Richard L. Smith(Authors)
- 2008(Publication Date)
- Chapman and Hall/CRC(Publisher)
23 2 Environmental Sampling 2.1 Introduction All of the examples considered in the previous chapter involved sampling of some sort, showing that the design of sampling schemes is an important topic in environmental statistics. This chapter is therefore devoted to con-sidering this topic in some detail. The estimation of mean values, totals, and proportions from the data collected by sampling is covered at the same time, and this means that the chapter includes all methods that are needed for many environmental studies. The first task in designing a sampling scheme is to define the population of interest as well as the sample units that make up this population. Here the population is defined as a collection of items that are of interest, and the sample units are these items. In this chapter it is assumed that each of the items is characterized by the measurements that it has for certain variables (e.g., weight or length), or which of several categories it falls into (e.g., the color that it possesses, or the type of habitat where it is found). When this is the case, statistical theory can assist in the process of drawing conclusions about the population using information from a sample of some of the items. Sometimes defining the population of interest and the sample units is straightforward because the extent of the population is obvious, and a natu-ral sample unit exists. At other times, some more-or-less arbitrary defini-tions will be required. An example of a straightforward situation is where the population is all the farms in a region of a country and the variable of interest is the amount of water used for irrigation on a farm. This contrasts with the situation where there is interest in the impact of an oil spill on the flora and fauna on beaches. In that case, the extent of the area that might be affected may not be clear, and it may not be obvious which length of beach to use as a sample unit.
eBook - PDF- M.R. Carter, E.G. Gregorich, M.R. Carter, E.G. Gregorich(Authors)
- 2007(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
1.2.2 R ESEARCH D ESIGNS U SING J UDGMENT S AMPLING Pedogenetic and soil geomorphic studies focus on determining the processes that formed the soil properties or landscapes under study and the environments that controlled the rates of these processes. Pedon-scale studies are closely associated with the development of soil taxonomic systems, and focus on vertical, intrapedon processes. Soil geomorphic studies are the interface between quaternary geology and soil science, and soil geomorphologists focus on lateral transfer processes and the historical landscape evolution. Both types of studies involve the identification of soil and = or sediment exposures that are highly resolved records of the sequence of processes that have formed the soil landscape. The researcher locates these exposures by using his judgment as to the landscape positions where optimum preservation of the soil–sediment columns is most likely. The development of the chronological sequence can be done with a detailed analysis of a single exposure; no replication of exposures is required. Surveys are designed to define the extent of spatial units. Soil surveyors map the distribution of soil taxonomic units and provide descriptive summaries of the main properties of the soils. In soil survey the association between soil classes and landscape units is established in the field by judicious selection of sampling points (termed the free survey approach). This type of judgment sampling can be an extremely efficient way of completing the inventory. Contaminant surveys are most typically undertaken by private-sector environmental con-sultants, and the specific objective may range from an initial evaluation of the extent of contamination to the final stage of remediation of the problem.
eBook - PDF- Bryan F.J. Manly, Jorge A. Navarro Alberto(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Chapman and Hall/CRC(Publisher)
145 10 Sampling Designs for Environmental Monitoring Trent McDonald 10.1 Introduction The statistical part of environmental monitoring designs contains three components: the spatial design, the temporal design, and the site design. The spatial design dictates where sample sites are located in the study area, the temporal design dictates when sample sites are visited, and the site design dictates what is measured at a particular site and how. These design compo-nents are largely, but not completely, independent. For example, methods in site design can substantially influence sample size and the population defi-nition which in turn influence the spatial and temporal designs. However, the site design may simply require selection of a point as an anchor for field measurements, and the spatial design can select this point without knowl-edge of the specifics of the field measurements. Likewise, the temporal design can dictate when points are revisited without knowing their location or the specifics of field measurements. It is therefore useful and relatively easy to study general-purpose spatial designs without knowledge of the temporal or site designs. This is the approach taken by this chapter. When designing the spatial component of an environmental monitoring study, the overriding purpose should be to select a sample of geographic locations that will eventually allow analyses that satisfy the study’s objec-tives. In most cases, these objectives include making valid scientific infer-ences to all parts of the study area. In other words, the results of the final analysis (e.g., point estimates, confidence intervals, distributional statements, etc.) should be accurate and apply to the intended population. 146 Introduction to Ecological Sampling This chapter considers key characteristics of spatial designs that serve these inferential purposes.
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