Psychology
Cortisol Research
Cortisol research in psychology focuses on the study of the hormone cortisol and its impact on stress, emotions, and behavior. Researchers investigate how cortisol levels fluctuate in response to various psychological and environmental factors, and how these fluctuations may influence mental health, cognitive function, and overall well-being. Understanding cortisol's role in the body's stress response has important implications for psychological research and clinical practice.
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8 Key excerpts on "Cortisol Research"
eBook - PDF- Edward Bittar(Author)
- 1999(Publication Date)
- Elsevier Science(Publisher)
Thus, psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety, which interfere with and impair coping strategies, may result in unattenuated cortisol stimulation. Disturbances in affect, such as depression or anxiety, are undoubtedly associ-ated with abnormal cortisol responses. Whether these come about as a conse-quence of disrupted psychological homeostasis through impairment of coping strategies or represent derangements at a more fundamental level (neurotransmit-ter control of HPA axis activitynvid~ infra) remains a matter for speculation. PsychologicalAspects of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal AxisActivity 121 Social Parameters The final set of factors that have a bearing on glucocorticoid responses relate to the individual's position in a social hierarchy. Thus, it has been shown in human and in animal studies that individuals with a low level of control over their envi-ronment (i.e., external locus of control)--those who lie at the lowest echelons of a social structure--tend to display the most dramatic adrenocortical responses in reply to a given stimulus (Sapolsky, 1989). In conclusion, it may be stated that maximal cortisol responses may be invoked by stressors that are life-threatening, unpredictable, and novel in individuals who are socially nondominant, behaviorally submissive, and in possession of poor coping strategies and a disturbed affect. LIMBIC SYSTEM AND HIPPOCAMPUS The role played by psychological elements in the modulation of adrenocortical responses to stressors points to the importance of higher centers in the brain in the regulation of hormonal output. At the center of such modulation lies the mecha-nism of neurohumoral transduction whereby cognitive processes are transformed into hormonal ones.
- Celia B Fisher, Richard M. Lerner, Celia B. Fisher, Richard M. Lerner(Authors)
- 2004(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications, Inc(Publisher)
Coe, Rosenberg, and Levine (1988) found that sustained, elevated cortisol levels can result in impaired immune functioning. Therefore, it is important to study the mechanisms that influence corti-sol, to help prevent negative physiological outcomes. Recent studies have found an interaction between stressful events and vulnerability for depression (Heim & Nemeroff, 1999). This interaction may have a crucial role in the onset of depression. The biological abnormalities that are most often found in depressed individuals involve deviations in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning (Sapolsky, 1992). About half of patients with depression exhibit ele-vated cortisol levels (Brown et al., 2004). There are overlapping medical problems exhibited by individuals with Cushing’s disease and individuals with depression. Cushing’s disease is an illness char-acterized by ACTH-secreting pituitary tumors. As a result of the pituitary tumors, this illness has been associated with cortisol elevation. These commonali-ties in medical illnesses have provided evidence of the detrimental effects of elevated cortisol (Brown et al., 2004). During pregnancy, the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) and HPA axes undergo the most change in a nonpathological state. In late pregnancy, cortisol levels are elevated well above normal ranges. Stressors during pregnancy are expected to alter the levels of different hormones and could affect fetal development. By 6 weeks postpartum, cortisol levels return to normal for all women (Pedersen et al., 1993). However, studies examining the psychological correlates of cortisol during pregnancy have been limited. CONCLUSIONS While the short-term release of cortisol can be a crucial stress response to prepare humans for danger, its long-term consequences may be harmful to human health.
eBook - PDF- John T. Cacioppo, Louis G. Tassinary, Gary G. Berntson(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
Chronic stressors may also affect CORT secretion; women having recently experienced a separation from a spouse or significant other had persistent evening CORT elevations during normal workdays (Powell et al., 2002). These examples call attention to the powerful influ- ence of mental events on the physiology of the body. In considering the prefrontal–limbic processes that gener- ate an HPA response to stress, it is worth recalling that these areas are also key targets of glucocorticoid feedback above the hypothalamus (Figures 21.3 and 21.4), and that these same areas are modifiable by experience. The following discussion focuses primarily on these themes. Individual Differences in Stress Hormone Secretion: Selected Themes One of the most active areas of psychophysiological research on stress hormones concerns the all-important topic of individual variation in stress reactivity. The forgoing material addressed general issues concerning stress hormone regulation and activation. However, endo- crine responses to stress are not consistent across persons. Most theories of stress and its impact on health presume that individual differences in stress hormone response are important because large responses (a) may be damaging to the system or because they (b) indicate subclinical systemic dysfunction underlying increased risk. We have previously outlined a model of the potential sources of individual differences in stress reactivity, with an emphasis on health outcomes (Lovallo & Gerin, 2003). This model specified that persons may have larger or smaller responses to stress because of differences in: (a) psychological reactions to a situation, (b) characteristic degrees of activation at the level of the hypothalamus or brainstem, or (c) how the peripheral tissues respond to a given level of output from the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems.
eBook - PDFStress - From Molecules to Behavior
A Comprehensive Analysis of the Neurobiology of Stress Responses
- Hermona Soreq, Alon Friedman, Daniela Kaufer(Authors)
- 2009(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
7.2 Corticosteroid Hormones, Fear and the Stress Response 121 in processing of fearful information and in modulation of stress responsiveness. Then, we highlight how genetic variants of the steroid receptors may modulate the action of the corticosteroids and how early life experiences cause lasting changes in stress responsiveness, cognitive functions and emotional reactivity. Finally, we discuss the implications of gene × environment interaction in the pathogenesis of stress-related anxiety disorders. 7.2 Corticosteroid Hormones, Fear and the Stress Response 7.2.1 Neuroanatomical Basis Information of a perceived threat is conveyed through the sensory organs to the limbic brain areas, that is, hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex (see Figure 7.1). Neuronal networks in these areas are involved in the appraisal of Figure 7.1 Corticosteroid levels and MR:GR balance determine health or disease. Emotional stressors mobilize CRH in hypothalamic and limbic areas, which signals the activation of autonomic and limbic-HPA axis systems. Corticosterone receptors (GR, MR), in cooperation with autonomic mediators and other neuropeptides, coordinate initial stress reactions with later adaptations to the stressor. Balanced MR:GR activation by corticosterone in time and space enables appraisal, encoding and proper extinction of the fearful memory, implying an effective coping response indicative for resilience. Imbalanced MR:GR and inadequate or excessive corticosterone action in control of the stress reaction have been related to cognitive impairment and enhanced vulnerability to depression, anxiety or PTSD. In this figure, corticosteroid levels are rising from the center toward the periphery and the larger case lettering for MR denotes relative excess or shortage of MR activation. 122 7 Corticosteroid Hormones in Stress and Anxiety incoming information and in the organization of an appropriate response if the new information does not match with previous experience.
- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Cuvillier Verlag(Publisher)
2.3.2.2 Cortisol Cortisol is an important indicator of acute stress and can be measured by samples of saliva, blood, or urine. A long-term assessment of cortisol concentration using samples of fingernails or hair is also possible. Among other factors, the cortisol level is influenced by genetics (Wüst et al., 2004), sex (Kudielka & Kirschbaum, 2005; Vreeburg et al., 2009), age (Kudielka & Kirschbaum, 2003), smoking behaviour (Vreeburg et al., 2009), socio-economic status (Kunz-Ebrecht, Kirschbaum, Marmot, & Steptoe, 2004), and habitual physical activity (Vreeburg et al., 2009). 20 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 18 Cortisol is a lipophilic steroid hormone, which is synthesised from cholesterol through several enzymatic processes and can pass through both the cell membranes of most organs and the blood-brain barrier due to its structure of short-chain lipids. Functionally, it can be subdivided into bound (90-95% of the total concentration) and unbound (5-10% of the total concentration), so-called free cortisol (Kirschbaum & Hellhammer, 2000; Mendel, 1989). Both types are released into the blood stream but only unbound cortisol occurs in saliva, urine, fingernails, or hair and can be measured from such samples. # ! ! # Figure 1: Feedback system of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (adapted from Pinel & Pauli, 2007) 21 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 19 2.3.2.2.1 Cortisol Secretion under Acute Stress Conditions The activation of HPA in response to an acute stressor results in the release of cortisol into the blood stream. The effect of the stressor in question and the stress response triggered by it can be very individual (Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004b; see 2.4.1.1 ). As explained previously, the influence of an acute stressor can be established on the basis of a blood sample and the levels of ACTH and cortisol (Mattingly, 1962; Yalow, Glick, Roth, & Berson, 1964). However, the measurement of cortisol levels in the blood has some practical limitations.
- Oliver C. Schultheiss, Pranjal H. Mehta(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
Salivary cortisol responses to psychosocial challenges are characterized by large variation in response magnitude both between individuals in a given context and within individuals across different contexts. Therefore, to unveil psychoneuroendocrine pathways connecting altered stress regulation with ill health, a thorough phenotyping of individual stress reactivity is of major importance. Thus, we now summarize basic knowledge on intra- and interindividual variability in cortisol stress responses. Finally, we address some general methodological issues that should be considered when conducting biopsychosocial stress research.4.1 Sex, sex steroid-related factors, and age
Sex is an important source of variability for HPA axis stress responses (see Kajantie & Phillips, 2006; Kudielka, Buske-Kirschbaum, Hellhammer, & Kirschbaum, 2004; Kudielka & Kirschbaum, 2005; Kudielka et al., 2009; Otte et al., 2005). Men consistently show higher elevations of free cortisol levels to psychosocial challenge tasks compared to women, an effect which emerged consistently in younger as well as older adults (Kirschbaum, Wüst, & Hellhammer, 1992; Kudielka et al., 1998; Kumsta, Entringer, Hellhammer, & Wüst, 2007). For example, in response to the TSST, males are more likely to respond with increased cortisol levels than females, showing longer peak latencies and higher post-stress peaks (up to twice as high) (Lopez-Duran, Mayer, & Abelson, 2014). Higher salivary cortisol responses to the TSST in men are also reported by a recent meta-analysis comparing 34 studies with a total sample size of 1350 individuals (640 women) (Liu et al., 2017). This sex-related variation has been attributed to differences in the internal endocrine milieu (see below). However, there has also been a discussion on the nature of the stressor. In contrast to the TSST, the cortisol response to the YIPS (see above) has been reported to be greater in females than males. This suggests that women might be more biologically reactive to interpersonal stress like social rejection challenges than men (Stroud, Papandonatos, D’Angelo, Brush, & Lloyd-Richardson, 2017; Stroud, Salovey, & Epel, 2002). However, this result fails to replicate in other studies (Linnen, Ellenbogen, Cardoso, & Joober, 2012). Regarding the endocrine milieu, the female menstrual cycle as well as intake of oral contraceptives appear to be crucial. In a study exposing a total of 81 male and female adults to the TSST, we had observed that women in the luteal phase (N = 21) show comparable salivary cortisol responses to men (N = 20) while women in the follicular phase (N = 19) and women taking oral contraceptives (N = 21) have significantly lower salivary cortisol responses (Kirschbaum, Kudielka, Gaab, Schommer, & Hellhammer, 1999). Corroborating this observation, Stephens et al. (2016) recently reported a more robust activation of the HPA axis in men compared to women in the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. However, other studies failed to detect HPA axis response differences across the follicular, ovulatory, or luteal phase (Duchesne & Pruessner, 2013; Herbison et al., 2016). The relatively consistent finding that intake of oral contraceptives leads to reduced free salivary cortisol responses points to a moderating role of corticosteroid–binding–globulin (CBG), because oral contraceptives containing an ethinyl-estradiol component can alter endogenous CBG concentrations (Kirschbaum et al., 1996; Kumsta, Entringer, & Hellhammer, 2007). Finally, as a note of caution, it cannot be ruled out that premenstrual syndrome as well as postmenopausal status or hormone replacement therapy may alter cortisol reactivity to acute stress (for review see Kudielka et al., 2009). In sum, in women the menstrual cycle phase and use of oral contraceptives should be controlled for when investigating HPA axis reactivity. Also, any sex steroid treatment should be excluded or at least reported.
eBook - PDFDiscovering Psychology
The Science of Mind
- John Cacioppo, Laura Freberg(Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Again, if we zoom in, we can understand that our bodies are usually protected from too much cortisol by a feedback loop that reduces cortisol release once circulating levels reach a certain point. It is likely that this feedback loop malfunctions in stress-related disorders, such as depression (see Chapter 14). While still at the microscopic level, we might also see that one person’s genetic makeup might predispose that individual to have a more or less dramatic response to perceived stressors. By now, you can probably anticipate that we have to zoom back out again to fully understand this situation. These genetic differences among individuals interact with developmental and social factors, such as the possibility that this woman was maltreated as a child or now enjoys a strong social network of family and friends. We can’t make your stress go away, and it is probably not in your best interests for us to do so. Some stress, such as the stress associated with exercise or even surviving a b The adrenal glands are the source of several important hormones that are released into the bloodstream at times of stress. Argosy Publishing, Inc. Ghislain & Marie David de Lossy/Cultura Creative (RF)/Alamy Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 620 Learning Objectives 1. Define stress, identifying key neural and hormonal aspects of Hans Selye’s general adaptation syndrome. 2. Distinguish among adaptive elements of the short-term stress response with health problems linked to chronic stress.
eBook - PDF- Danuta Koradecka(Author)
- 2010(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
Society now widely recognises adrenaline and corticosteroids as the hormones of stress that determine its intensity and consequences. Neurophysiological research developed dynamically in the 1970s, confirming the existence of a path in the part of the brain known as the hypothalamus, which trans-forms the sensory perceptions from receptors into emotions and then into stress reac-tions. Interesting studies by endocrinologist W. Mason proved that the stress reaction is neutralised—and the adrenaline and corticosteroid concentrations in the blood do not change—in situations wherein emotions associated with a sense of threat due to pain or hunger have been blocked pharmacologically (Mason 1975). This means that typical changes caused by stress do not develop if the environmental factor is not perceived as a threat to the body, even if it poses a real danger (Figure 5.3). Discovery of the role of conscious perception as a condition for the emergence of somatic stress reactions has led to the establishment of stress psychology and psy-chophysiology as a branch of science combining the theories of physiologists and psychologists (Figure 5.4). EVENT Sensory perception Effective integration by limbic system Effector organ Lack of recognition of threat Lack of stress reaction Stress reactions through the hypothalamus Spotting of threat Cognitive interpretation by neocortex Sensory tracts - Direct innervation by the sympathetic and parasympathetic system - ‘Fight or flight’ reaction (W. Cannon) - General adaptation syndrome (W. Selye) FIGURE 5.3 Reaction of the organism to stress: the role of conscious perception as a condi-tion for the emergence of stress reactions. 92 Handbook of Occupational Safety and Health All these studies have formed the basis for a coherent psychophysiological theory of stress, which is being developed further by psychologists and biologists at deeper levels—cellular and molecular.
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