Psychology
Gender and Sexuality
Gender refers to the social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations associated with being male or female, while sexuality encompasses a person's sexual orientation, desires, and behaviors. In psychology, the study of gender and sexuality explores how these aspects of identity are shaped by biological, psychological, and social factors, and how they influence individuals' thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
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12 Key excerpts on "Gender and Sexuality"
eBook - PDFIntroduction to Psychiatry
Preclinical Foundations and Clinical Essentials
- Audrey Walker, Steven Schlozman, Jonathan Alpert(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
Whereas sex is primarily biological, gen- der is primarily social. Gender is mutable and culturally dependent; it varies across culture, ideology, race/ethnicity, and time. The World Health Organization defines gender as “the socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between groups of women and men. It var- ies from society to society and can be changed.” Every person’s gender is informed by a complex interplay between their body, identity, and expression and role. Multiple concepts are discussed below that may sound similar though describe discrete constructs. For example, gender identity, expression, and roles inform each other though are different processes. For clarity, it may be helpful to think of examples and/or consider how these concepts manifest differently in your life. 450 Psychiatry of Gender and Sexuality Gender identity is a person’s inner sense of being a girl/woman, boy/man, some- thing else in terms of gender, having multiple gender identities, or having no gen- der identity at all. Gender identity refers to a person’s feelings about themselves in terms of how they relate to masculinity, femininity, and a blend of similar traits. Although studies demonstrate a wide spectrum of gender identities, society reinforces a notion that gender is a binary phenomenon consisting of only two genders, girl/woman or boy/man. Gender identity is often thought of as internal, whereas gender expression is considered more external. Gender expression refers to the behavioral manifestations of one’s gender. It is the way we show our gender identity to the world around us. This includes behaviors and rituals we may take for granted: wearing pants rather than a skirt, using the women’s bathroom, speaking with a bass rather than falsetto voice, and responding to particular pronouns such as “he,” “she,” or “they.” Gender expres- sion is defined by clothing, mannerisms, vocal patterns, and behaviors.
eBook - PDF- Catherine A. Sanderson, Karen R. Huffman(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
They also help counteract ethnocentrism—the tendency to judge our culture as “normal” and pref- erable to others. 15.2 Sexual Identity 426 • Sex refers to biological differences between men and women, such as having a penis or vagina, or to physical activities such as masturbation and intercourse. Gender encompasses the socially constructed differ- ences between men and women, such as “masculinity” and “femininity.” • Our gender identity (self-identification as a man or woman) and gender roles (the culturally and socially defined prescriptions and beliefs about the thoughts, feelings, and actions of men and women) are largely formed in the first few years of life. When gender role pre- scriptions and beliefs are overly general, and applied to all men and women, they’re known as gender-role stereotypes. • People who are transgender experience a mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity. Sexual orientation (being heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual) refers to our primary emotional and erotic attraction. 15.3 Sex Problems 431 • People who experience personal distress over their sexual interests or whose sexual arousal or response depends entirely on these interests may be classified as having a paraphilic disorder, such as fetishistic disorder or exhibitionistic disorder. • Biology plays a key role in both sexual arousal and response. Ejacula- tion and orgasm are partly reflexive, and the parasympathetic nervous system must be dominant for sexual arousal to occur. The sympathetic nervous system must be dominant for orgasm to occur. Psychological factors like negative early sexual experiences, fears of negative con- sequences from sex, and performance anxiety contribute to sexual dysfunction. Sexual arousal and response are also related to social forces, such as early gender-role training and sexual scripts, which teach us what to consider as the “best” sex.
- Marc Cortez(Author)
- 2010(Publication Date)
- T&T Clark(Publisher)
The gendered existence of human persons, then, is a complex reality that is difficult to capture in a simple definition. Biology and culture work together to produce gender in a complex spiral of mutual interaction—one’s biology providing the genetic structure but in turn being influenced by cultural perceptions and expecta-tions. We can thus affirm both “that biology is a factor in shaping human identity” and that “our social location plays an equally impor-tant role in the formation of our identity.” 49 The complex interaction of these factors means that although there are differences between men and women, the precise nature of these differences defies simple explanation. Some of the data suggest that there is an “innate” aspect to gender that results in certain gendered “tendencies and predis-positions,” 50 but it is seldom possible to identify differences with their corresponding biological causes confidently. We should not be surprised by this. As one researcher points out, “In a complex, inter-acting, dynamic, causal system . . ., is it ever possible to partition the causes of any particular gender-related behavior exclusively into one of two simple and mutually exclusive categories: nature or nurture? The answer . . . is, probably not.” 51 Hopefully we have now developed a better understanding of the complex reality that is human sexuality and some of the biological SEXUALITY 57 and cultural factors that go into its development. Our study of gender must press on to consider another dimension of sexuality, however, before it is complete. If human sexuality is a fundamental aspect of human existence, and if human persons are basically theological beings who can be understood only in terms of their relationship to God (as argued in the previous chapter), then we must consider how human sexuality itself should be understood theologically.
eBook - PDF- Peggy T. Cohen-Kettenis, Friedemann Pfäfflin(Authors)
- 2003(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications, Inc(Publisher)
1 1 TYPICAL SEXUAL AND PSYCHOSEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION GENERAL TERMINOLOGY Terminology in the field of typical and atypical psychosexual differentia-tion is confusing and in some areas controversial. Similar terms are used for different concepts, whereas different terms sometimes refer to one single concept. Sex and gender are often used interchangeably, but some authors insist on making a distinction between the two. They argue that, in referring to behavior, the term sex (as in “sex differences”) implies that there is a bio-logical basis for the behavior (e.g., Deaux, 1993). For clinicians there is yet another reason to make a distinction between these terms. Whereas in most people every next (psycho-)sexual differentiation phase is in line with the previous one, in many conditions that are discussed in this book, this is not the case. In order to avoid confusion, we use the term gender when dis-cussing one’s personal and social status as a male or female. We use the term sex to refer to biological maleness or femaleness. An exception is made in Chapter 8, as, in the legal world, the terminology differs somewhat from that of the medical and psychological worlds. Terms such as legal sex change are used in Chapter 8. Over the years the concepts gender identity and gender role have also been used quite differently. In the 1950s one of the founding fathers of modern sexology, John Money (1994), proposed the two-sided concept gender iden-tity/role. Here, gender identity is the private manifestation of gender role, and gender role is the public manifestation of gender identity. In his view, gender identity disorders (see below) stem from an incongruity between the assigned sex and the two-sided concept gender identity/role. However, in persons with a gender identity disorder, the gender role, which, according to Money, is the public expression of one’s gender identity, is, at least for some period, seri-ously blocked.
eBook - PDFTrans People's Partnerships
Towards an Ethics of Intimacy
- Tam Sanger(Author)
- 2010(Publication Date)
- Palgrave Macmillan(Publisher)
The impact of normative sex- uality frameworks and the influence of partners’ sexuality designations on one another are explored here in order to investigate and trouble the available constructions of sexuality. Butler asserts that, gender can denote a unity of experience, of sex, gender, and desire, only when sex can be understood in some sense to necessitate gender – where gender is a psychic and/or cultural designation of the self – and desire – where desire is heterosexual and therefore differentiates itself through an oppositional relation to that other gender it desires (1999 [1990]: 30, emphasis in original). Sexuality is perceived here as only intelligible within a discourse taking sex and gender to be unproblematic concepts. Thus, problematisation of sex and gender may also render sexuality, and particular conceptua- isations of desire reliant on specific interpretations of sexuality, as prob- lematic (see Valentine, 2003: 125). As trans people challenge hegemonic notions of gender following unproblematically from sex, their experi- ences can contest the bases of predominant discourses such as the gender Sexuality: Categorisations and Complexities 79 binary and heteronormativity. While these discourses are separable, they are also closely linked in the popular imagination, as well as com- plexly configured within individual lives (see GLQ Forum, 2004), and of course extremely relevant to the theorisation of intimacy. Diane Richardson has described the relationship between Gender and Sexuality in terms of ‘patterned fluidities’, utilising the metaphor of the shoreline to clarify her meaning (2007). The shoreline is constantly changing and fluid and Richardson imagines the land as a metaphor for gender and the sea for sexuality (470). These two elements exist in a dynamic relationship where they are inter-related and impacted upon by a variety of outside factors, and yet retain their difference from each other.
eBook - PDFCultural Anthropology
An Applied Perspective
- Gary Ferraro, Susan Andreatta(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Some individuals, however, do not fit within the binary notions of a female or male body nor do they identify as a woman or man. Gender refers to “the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women” (World Health Organization 2015) (see Figure 11.1). For some individuals the gendered dichotomy of man and woman is limiting, for it does not sex Where men and women differ genetically, with women having two X chromosomes and men having both an X and a Y chromosome. sexual dimorphism The physiological difference in form between men and women. intersex Genetically having the combination of both male and female organs and hormones. gender The roles, behaviors, and attributes a society considers appropriate for members of the two sexes. FIGURE 11.1 Young children learn by observing and copying their parents. A Ju/’hoansi from the Kalahari, South Africa, is teaching his son to hunt with a bow and arrow, which is pre-dominantly men’s work. Louise Gubb/The Image Works Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300 Sex and Gender ■ 257 account for those who do not exclusively identify with their biological sex assigned at birth. One’s gender iden-tity, that is, a person’s perception or sense of themselves as male, female, or transgender, perhaps lies more to one end of a masculine or feminine continuum. Similar to how culture is learned, so too is gender. Gender affects and is affected by social, political, eco-nomic, and religious forces, and thus, continuously evolves with time. Body adornment, clothing style, com-munication patterns, and interests enable people to express their gender identity. In other words, gender expression is the way in which people behave or act to communicate their gender in a given culture.
eBook - PDFHomosexuality
Research Implications for Public Policy
- John C. Gonsiorek, James D. Weinrich, John C. Gonsiorek, James D. Weinrich(Authors)
- 1991(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications, Inc(Publisher)
1 The Definition and Scope of Sexual Orientation John C. Gonsiorek James D. Weinrich The question of precisely who is and who is not homosexual is itself controversial. Various behaviors and individual life-styles have been confused with sexual orientation. Shively and De Cecco (1977) devel-oped a useful distinction in dividing sexual identity into four parts. The first is biological sex, the genetic material encoded in chromosomes. The next is gender identity, the psychological sense of being male or female. Social sex role is adherence to the culturally created behaviors and atti-tudes that are deemed appropriate for males or females. Finally, sexual orientation is erotic and/or affectional disposition to the same and/or opposite sex. It is important to note that the first three bear no necessary relation-ship to sexual orientation in any given individual. Each, however, has been confused with sexual orientation. Variations on these parameters (e.g., cross-dressing, sadomasochism, and fetishism) are not discussed here because they occur among both heterosexuals and homosexuals and are not specific to sexual orientation. Gay and lesbian are popular terms for people who define themselves as homosexual in contrast to the term straight used by gay people to describe heterosexuals, but also widely used by heterosexuals in other contexts. It is also important to note that a person's sexual behavior can be homosexual yet that person may not self-identify as gay. The process of coming out and defining oneself as gay, together with the additional act of coming out publicly as gay, can create pro-found events in the lives of homosexual men and women living in a disparaging society, as described by Gonsiorek and Rudolph in this volume. Perhaps because of this, the term sexual preference is sometimes used. It might appear to outsiders that individuals going through this process have chosen their homosexuality. We suggest that the term 1
eBook - PDF- Catherine A. Sanderson, Karen R. Huffman(Authors)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
Gender role (societal expectations) Masculinity (“Boys like trucks and sports”) Femininity (“Girls like dolls and clothes”) *Key Take-Home Message Both sex and gender are NOT either/or categories. Instead, they exist on a continuum and involve several, overlapping dimensions. Let’s look first at gender identity—our multifaceted sense of self-identification as being a man or a woman or some position between the two. Many people think in gender binary terms—believing there are only these two genders, which are distinct and unchanging. As you can see in Figure 10.4, however, there are numerous options for gender identity. Gender expression is how we outwardly display our choice in gender identities. Under most circumstances, we choose our hairstyles, clothing, and social expressions (such as names and pronouns) to match our chosen gender identities. Have you noticed how often people choose the “other sex” costumes when outfitting themselves for Halloween? Or how many women tend to wear dresses and high heels when they want to appear more feminine, whereas many men will choose suits and ties when desiring to appear more masculine? In contrast to how we present our gender to the world (gender expression), there’s another, more hidden, dimension of gender, called gender roles, which are defined as the psycholog- ical and sociocultural defined prescriptions and beliefs about the “appropriate” thoughts, feelings, and actions of men and women. These gender roles and gender expressions vary sub- stantially across cultures and even within the same culture. Interestingly, individual gender identity is typically formed largely in our first few years of life, whereas gender roles are devel- oped covertly long before we are consciously aware of them (Brannon, 2016; Keatley et al., 2017; Tosh, 2016). Gender identity The self- identification as being a man or a woman or some position between the two.
No longer available |Learn more- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Library Press(Publisher)
define sexual orientation in terms of dichotomous biological sex or gender... Most theorists would not eliminate the reference to sex or gender, but instead advocate incorporating more complex nonbinary concepts of sex or gender, more complex relationships between sex, gender, and sexuality, and/or additional nongendered dimensions into models of sexuality. – ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Relationships outside of orientation Gay and lesbian people can have sexual relationships with someone of the opposite sex for a variety of reasons including the desire for family with children and concerns of discrimination and religious ostracism. While some GLBT people hide their respective orientations from their spouses, others develop positive gay and lesbian identities while maintaining successful marriages. Coming out of the closet to oneself, a spouse of the opposite sex, and children can present challenges that are not faced by gay and lesbian people who are not married to people of the opposite sex or do not have children. Fluidity of sexuality The American Psychiatric Association (APA) has stated, some people believe that sexual orientation is innate and fixed; however, sexual orientation develops across a person's lifetime. The APA also says that most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation. For some people the focus of sexual interest will shift at various points through the life span... A community may change over time. In a joint statement with other major American medical, psychology, educator, and religious organizations, the APA says that different people realize at different points in their lives that they are heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual. A report from the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health states, For some people, sexual orientation is continuous and fixed throughout their lives. For others, sexual orientation may be fluid and change over time.
eBook - PDFPsychology
Modules for Active Learning
- Dennis Coon, John Mitterer, Tanya Martini, , Dennis Coon, John Mitterer, Tanya Martini, (Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
When these people realize that they are being untrue to themselves, their identity and re-lationships may shift. Other apparent shifts in orientation Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 397 MODULE 46 HUMAN SEXUALITY: SEX AND GENDER Sex One’s physical, biological classification as female or male. Genetic sex Sex as indicated by the presence of XX (female) or XY (male) chromosomes. Hormonal sex Sex as indicated by a preponderance of estrogens (female) or androgens (male) in the body. Gonadal sex Sex as indicated by the presence of ovaries (female) or testes (male). Genital sex Sex as indicated by the presence of male or female genitals. X chromosome The female chromosome contributed by the mother; produces a female when paired with another X chromo-some and a male when paired with a Y chromosome. Y chromosome The male chromosome contributed by the father; produces a male when paired with an X chromosome. Fathers may give either an X or a Y chromosome to their offspring. Gonads The primary sex glands—the testes in males and ovaries in females. Estrogen Any of a number of female sex hormones. Androgen Any of a number of male sex hormones, especially testosterone. Testosterone A male sex hormone, secreted mainly by the testes and responsible for the development of many male sexual character-istics. Intersex person A person who has genitals suggestive of both sexes. Primary sexual characteristics Sex as defined by the genitals and internal reproductive organs.
eBook - PDF- Karen R. Huffman, Katherine Dowdell, Catherine A. Sanderson(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
Which theory do you think best explains how the children in this photo learn what type of clothes are “appropriate” for their respective genders? Completing this self-test and connections section, and then checking your answers by clicking on the answer button or by looking in Appendix B, will provide immediate feedback and helpful practice for exams. Self-Test 1. Briefly describe how the term “gender” differs from “sex.” 2. refers to one’s self-identification as either a man or a woman. a. Sex role b. Assigned sex c. Gender dysphoria d. Gender identity 3. Androgynous is another word for . a. transgender, gay, or lesbian b. having both male and female traits c. having an oversupply of androgens during prenatal development d. transvestite 4. A transgender person has a . a. mismatch between his or her gender identity and biological sex b. mismatch between his or her gender role and biological sex c. heterosexual preference for sexual gratification d. need to wear clothing of the other sex for sexual gratification 5. John has a male lover but also enjoys sexual relationships with women. His probable sexual orientation is . a. gay b. transgender c. bisexual d. heterosexual Retrieval Practice 11.2 Sexual Identity © Billy R. Ray/Wiley Courtesy of Sandy Harvey 364 CHAPTER 11 Gender and Human Sexuality Obviously, there is strong motivation to engage in sexual behavior. It’s essential for the survival of our species, and it’s also pleasurable. But sexuality includes much more than reproduction. For most humans (and some other animals), a sexual relationship fulfills many needs, includ- ing the need for connection, intimacy, pleasure, and the release of sexual tension. Interestingly, sex may also play a critical role in pair bonding—the formation of enduring relationships be- tween adult mates.
- Fanny M. Cheung, Diane F. Halpern(Authors)
- 2020(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
International Journal of Transgenderism, 18(1), 91–103. doi:10.1080/15532739.2016.1250239 American Psychological Association & National Association of School Psychologists. (2015). Resolution on gender and sexual orientation diversity in children and adolescents in schools. www.apa.org/about/policy/orientation-diversity.aspx Atallah, S., Johnson-Agbakwu, C., Rosenbaum, T., Abdo, C., Byers, E. S., Graham, C. . . . Brotto, L. A. (2016). Ethical and socio-cultural aspects of sexual function and dysfunction in both sexes. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13, 591–606. doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.01.021 Aubrey, J. S. (2004). Sex and punishment: An examination of sexual consequences and the sexual double standard in teen programming. Sex Roles, 50, 501–514. doi:10.1023/B: SERS.0000023070.87195.07 Bakare-Yusuf, B. (2013). Thinking with pleasure: Danger, sexual- ity and agency. In S. Jolly, A. Cornwall, & K. Hawkins (Eds.), Women, sexuality and the political power of pleasure (pp. 28–41). London: Zen Books. Bem, S. L. (1993). The lenses of gender: Transforming the debate on sexual inequality. New Haven: Yale University Press. Bennett, L. R. (2005). Women, Islam and modernity: Single women, sexuality and reproductive health in contemporary Indonesia. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203391389 Berenbaum, S. A. (2006). Psychological outcome in children with disorders of sex development: Implications for understanding typical development. Annual Review of Sex Research, 17, 1–38. Blackless, M., Charuvastra, A., Derryck, A., Fausto-Sterling, A., Lau- zanne, K., & Lee, E. (2000). How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis. American Journal of Human Biology, 12, 151–166. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(200003/04)12:2<151:: AID-AJHB1>3.0.CO;2-F Blackridge, P., & Gilhooly, S. (1986). Still sane. Vancouver: Press Gang. Blair, K.
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