Psychoactive Drugs

12 Key excerpts on "Psychoactive Drugs"

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  eBook - ePub

  Essential guide to the Psychedelic Renaissance

  All you need to know about how psilocybin, MDMA and LSD are revolutionizing mental health and changing lives

  • Antón Gómez-Escolar(Author)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • ArgoNowta

    (Publisher)

  1 , are those keys that, like our internal neurotransmitters, fit into the locks of our neurons (or act on our internal keys).

  Therefore, if we want to be more precise when referring to substances such as alcohol, cannabis (marijuana), cocaine or LSD ("acid"), ideally, we would not just talk about drugs, which is a very broad term, but "psychoactive substances" or "Psychoactive Drugs." These terms are essentially synonyms. In addition to being synonyms, they would be the most precise terms to use. However, to make it easier for the reader and keeping with the usual social lexicon, throughout this book we will use the word "drug" as an abbreviated form of "psychoactive drug" or "psychoactive substance."

  Far from technical definitions, drugs, whether legal, illegalized or restricted for medical use, are fundamentally known for their effects on the mind and behavior, since they are tools that not only stimulate or relax us, they allow us to access other altered or non-ordinary states of consciousness.

  The science that studies the effects of these substances on the mind – cognition, emotions, thoughts, sensations, motivations and behaviors – is known as "psychopharmacology."

  Sensory isolation tank, where you float in body-temperature salt water in the dark, in silence, to deprive the brain of any sensory input and achieve altered states of consciousness. (Floatguru, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons).

  Fortunately, psychoactive substances are not the only tool we have to access these altered states of consciousness. There are various ancient and modern practices that allow us to achieve states that can resemble those obtained through psychoactive substances, such as: meditation, breathing, fasting, extreme sports, sleep deprivation, sensory isolation chambers2 , or lucid dreams3

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  Psychology

  Modules for Active Learning

  • Dennis Coon, John Mitterer, Tanya Martini, , Dennis Coon, John Mitterer, Tanya Martini, (Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  211 MODULE 25 Consciousness Psychoactive Drugs Many artists, writers, and musicians have celebrated the use of psy-choactive drugs. Others have attributed their creativity to drug- induced experiences. Here, the artist depicts visual experiences he had while under the influence of LSD. Unfortunately, positive images and songs about drug use obscure another, darker reality. Prescription drugs that can ease pain, induce sleep, or end depression also have a high potential for abuse. So do freely available legal drugs, such as nicotine and alcohol. Add to the mix the destruction wrought by illicit drugs, and it’s little wonder that so many lives are damaged by drug abuse. This module provides an overview of commonly abused psychoactive substances. Learning Outcome 25.1 Explain the action of a psychoac-tive drug, distinguish between recreational and instrumental drug use, and outline three reasons for drug abuse One common way to alter human consciousness is to administer a psychoactive drug— a substance capable of altering attention, emotion, judgment, memory, time sense, self-control, or perception. In fact, most Americans regularly use consciousness-altering drugs (don’t forget, caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine are mildly psychoactive). Many Psychoactive Drugs can be placed on a scale ranging from stimulation to depression ( ➤ Figure 25.1 ). A stimu-lant , or upper , is a substance that increases activity in the body and nervous system.

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  eBook - ePub

  Adult Psychological Problems

  An Introduction

  • Lorna Champion, Michael Power(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Taylor & Francis

    (Publisher)

  There is a vast range of Psychoactive Drugs which can be used to excess, some illicit but many legal. The effects they produce vary, and the consequences of heavy sustained use differ, depending partly on the particular drug and partly on personal characteristics of the drug user. Some people, for example, become intoxicated with much smaller amounts of alcohol than others, and this is influenced by their sex, their body mass, their recent daily intake of alcohol, and so on. Likewise, the likelihood that someone will turn to crime to finance their drug use will be affected by factors such as opportunities for legal employment and their personal moral code. Drugs can nevertheless be classified according to the psychoactive effects which they produce through their action on the central nervous system (the CNS, which includes the brain), and one such classification system is described in the following section.

  GENERAL CLASSES OF Psychoactive Drugs

  The Royal College of Psychiatrists (1987) has listed five main categories of Psychoactive Drugs which are frequently misused: opiates, depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens, and minor tranquillisers. Examples of drugs falling into each category, with details of their main effects are as follows.

  The opiates

  These include natural extracts from the opium poppy (e.g. morphine, codeine), drugs derived from these via some chemical modification (e.g. heroin), and a range of synthetic compounds which have similar chemical structures (e.g. methadone, dihydrocodeine). Opiates are medically prescribed for pain relief, but also tend to produce pleasant mood states, and in some cases a transient euphoric “high” or “rush”, which occurs shortly after drug ingestion. They are capable of inducing tolerance and physical dependence, and the withdrawal syndrome includes severe ‘flu-like symptoms such as sweating, shaking, weakness, runny eyes and nose, aching, and nausea. As yet no permanent medical consequences have been directly associated with opiate use, though, as discussed later, lack of care in the way the drugs are used may lead indirectly to numerous health hazards.

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  Human Aggression

  Theories, Research, and Implications for Social Policy

  • Russell G. Geen, Edward D. Donnerstein(Authors)
  • 1998(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  Thus, certain drugs would be categorized as stimulants if they result in increased attention, heart rate, and wakefulness at low doses; in- somnia, stereotypical motor movements, tremors, and highly elevated cardiac ac- tivity at moderate doses, and confusion, paranoia, and possible convulsions at very high doses. This category would include such drugs as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, and cocaine. A number of other drugs would be categorized as de- Psychoactive Drugs AND HUMAN AGGRESSION 1 4 1 pressants if they tended to reduce motor coordination at low doses; produced loss of coordination, sleepiness, and depressed breathing at moderate doses; and caused coma and death at very high doses. This category would include antihista- mines, benzodiazepines, opiates, and alcohol. Leccese (1991), who advocates this categorization system, also includes a separate category for hallucinogens. These drugs produce slight alteration in perception at low doses, hallucinations and sym- pathetic nervous system stimulation at moderate doses, and profound delusions as well as loss of contact with reality at very high doses. TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVES The use, possession, and sale of some Psychoactive Drugs are illegal. It is a crime in this country to use, possess, buy, or sell such controlled substances as LSD, heroin, cocaine, and marijuana. However, many commonly used psychoac- tive drugs are legal or can be acquired legally. Psychoactive substances can be found in over-the-counter remedies (e.g., Dexatrim, No-Doz), in legally pur- chased products (e.g., tea, cola, cigarettes, alcoholic beverages), and in prescrip- tion drugs. It is estimated that in any particular year, 15% of the U.S. population experi- ence some form of psychological disorder (Klerman, 1983). Another 15% of the population seek clinical advice for symptoms that do not meet specific diagnostic criteria for a psychiatric disorder (e.g., anxiety).

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  Drug Use and Abuse

  A Comprehensive Introduction

  • Howard Abadinsky(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Those views shaped society’s responses to drug abuse, treating it as a moral failing rather than a health problem which led to an emphasis on punitive rather than preventive and therapeutic actions. Today, thanks to sci-ence, our views and our responses to drug abuse have changed dramatically. Groundbreak-ing discoveries about the brain have revolutionized our understanding of drug addiction, enabling us to respond effectively to the problem” (Volkow 2007: 10). Distinctions between the biology, sociology, and psychology of drug use are quite arti-ficial (Peele 1985). Thus, for example, brain structure is largely inherited, drug abuse runs in families, and persons with certain brain abnormalities render them vulnerable to drug dependence. However, a study (Ersche et al. 2012) of fifty siblings with the same brain- vulnerable abnormality revealed that half did not use drugs. Although the explanatory value of each by itself is limited, the interaction of these three dimensions can provide an explanation for drug use. Their separation into different chapters is therefore for peda-gogical rather than for scientific purposes. (The biology of drug use also has important treatment and policy implications—topics of subsequent chapters.) In this chapter, we will examine how Psychoactive Drugs affect the central nervous system (CNS), sometimes referred to as psychopharmacology. In subsequent chapters, we will apply this information to specific drugs. PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The body consists of cells organized into tissues, and specialized cells along the surface of the body receive information about the environment that is translated into electrochemical signals that we experience as sight, sound, smell, and touch. Information from the internal and external environment—collectively known as stimuli —is received by the CNS, consist-ing of the brain and the complex wiring surrounding the spinal cord.

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  Substance Use Disorders

  A Biopsychosocial Perspective

  • Perry M. Duncan(Author)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Cambridge University Press

    (Publisher)

  Eventually, the drug is degraded and eliminated. The extent and duration of a drug’s entry into or presence in various systems of the body are referred to as pharmacokinetics. Pharmacodynamics Psychoactive Drugs affect brain activity by altering several processes of neural function. A drug can enhance, or boost the activity of a neurotransmitter as it exerts an agonist effect. Conversely, a drug may interfere with the function of a neurotransmitter in an antagonist effect. Either of these actions can occur by means of changing the availability (amount and duration) of neurotransmitter in the synapse, or by an action on the receptors. The specific manner in which either neurotransmitter function or receptor activation is altered is termed the drug’s mechanism of action. Several mechanisms of action for both agonist and antag- onist effects are relatively well understood (Table 4.2, Figure 4.3). The positive Agonist mechanisms Antagonist mechanisms Increases NT synthesis Interferes with NT synthesis Promotes NT release into the synapse Prevents release into the synapse Binds to and activates postsynaptic receptors Blocks postsynaptic receptors Blocks presynaptic autoreceptors Binds to and activates presynaptic autoreceptors Blocks reuptake or prevents breakdown of NT in the synapse Note. Drugs can facilitate the actions of a neurotransmitter – an agonist effect – or interfere with the neurotransmitter’s action – an antagonist effect. Most such drug actions occur by influencing the availability of neurotransmitters or by interaction with receptors. Drug actions on receptors often produce more specific effects than actions influencing neurotransmitters. Most drugs with abuse potential are agonists for one or more neurotransmitters. Certain drugs (e.g., nicotine, buprenorphine) have complex actions that cannot be described simply as purely agonist or antagonist. Table 4.2 Drug mechanisms of action

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  Biology Trending

  A Contemporary Issues Approach

  • Eli Minkoff, Jennifer K. Hood-DeGrenier(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  Cellular tolerance results from changes in the receptors for the drug, principally the receptors on the nerve cells in the brain. Tolerance results from either a drug-induced decrease in the number of receptors or an increase in the threshold needed to trigger a response. Heroin produces these changes in the brain within a week or two of daily use. Some drugs can cause permanent damage to receptors and, therefore, tolerance to these drugs becomes permanent. For most drugs, however, tolerance is not permanent but disappears gradually with time. The time period varies greatly from one drug to another.

  So far, we have emphasized the effects of Psychoactive Drugs on the brain. However, these drugs also have effects throughout the body, as we see in the next section.

   THOUGHT QUESTIONS

  1. If a person has never learned to feel pleasure or satisfaction from daily activities, will they be more attracted to the artificial pleasure offered by drugs? Can this suggest anything to us about drug prevention strategies? One slogan says that “Hugs are better than drugs.” Does this slogan correlate with neurobiological findings? Can this idea be applied in drug prevention programs?
  2. Because Psychoactive Drugs work directly on the brain cells, are individuals exempted from responsibility for their own drug use? (Can a drug user justify their behavior by saying “the drug made me do it”?) Apply this reasoning to alcohol and tobacco as well as illegal drugs.

  13.4 DRUG ABUSE IMPAIRS HEALTH

  In addition to addiction, the use of Psychoactive Drugs can impair the health of individual drug users in other ways. It can also affect their gametes, and thus the development of their children.

  13.4.1 Drug effects on the health of users

  Drug abuse negatively affects the health of individuals and society. In the United States, deaths from drug overdoses rose steadily from under 20,000 in 1999 to over 70,000 in 2017. In recent years, the vast majority of these overdose deaths have been caused by synthetic narcotics, especially fentanyl, which is 50–100 times more potent than morphine, from which heroin is derived. While synthetic and natural opioids (including heroin) are responsible for the majority of drug overdoses (about 68% in 2017), other drugs, including cocaine, methamphetamines, tranquilizers (e.g., Valium and Xanax), and alcohol, also cause significant numbers of overdose deaths. In addition, many more deaths result from health conditions caused by chronic drug use.

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  Drug Use, Misuse and Abuse

  Psychopharmacology in the 21st Century

  • Cecile A. Marczinski(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Defining Substance Use, Abuse, and Addiction When Is Drug Use Harmful? Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the main reasons people try Psychoactive Drugs including to feel good, to feel better, to do better, curiosity, and peer influences. The question of course is, if the use of a psychoactive drug makes us feel good, what is the problem? For many people, there is no problem. The data on the widespread use of Psychoactive Drugs in the United States and worldwide reveals that many people use alcohol and drugs without concern. However, a subset of individuals develops problems that can range from mildly disconcerting to devastating, including death. These problems stem from the fact that the short-term pleasure following use of a drug occurs because the drug alters chemical levels in the brain. These chemicals, called neuro- transmitters, are always in a delicate balance. When this delicate balance is disrupted on a regular basis (as when substance use becomes habitual), the body adapts and changes to accommodate to this new “normal.” For example, if a drug elevates the levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain, the body will produce less of its own dopamine in order to keep dopamine at a desired target. Over time, if drug use continues and escalates, the user will need more drug to elevate dopamine levels and the body will produce less and less of its own naturally occurring dopamine. The user will find that pleasurable activities in life become less pleasurable, and drug use becomes necessary for the user simply to feel normal. These subjective feelings arise because of the adjusted new balance in neurotransmitters in the brain. Unfortunately, there is no medical test to determine when substance use has gone from a pleasurable activity to abuse and addiction. In an ideal future, it would be possible to assess neurotransmitter activity via a medical test.

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  Discovering Behavioral Neuroscience

  An Introduction to Biological Psychology

  • Laura Freberg(Author)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. Effects of Selected Psychoactive Drugs 133 Effects of Selected Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive Drugs are usually administered to obtain a particular psychological effect. By definition, these drugs circumvent the protective systems of the blood–brain barrier to gain access to the CNS. Stimulants Stimulant drugs share the capacity to increase alertness and mobility. As a result, these drugs have been widely embraced among cultures such as our own, in which produc-tivity and hard work are valued. CAFFEINE As a graduate student, I participated in a research project on caffeine. The researchers calmly suggested to me that 20 cups of coffee a day (my reported intake) was “a bit much,” and they suggested I cut back to 8 or so. What is the nature of the attraction many of us have to caffeine? For most people, caffeine increases blood pressure and heart rate, improves concentration, and wards off sleepiness. The substance is found in tea, coffee, cola and energy drinks, chocolate, and a number of over-the-counter pain relievers (see ● Figure 4.22). Caffeine produces its behavioral effects by blocking adenosine receptors, reduc-ing the normal inhibitory activity of adenosine. Caffeine’s interference with ade-nosine’s inhibition in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex probably accounts for the alertness associated with its use. Interference with normal adenosine activity in the basal ganglia produces improvements in reaction time. Caffeine also leads to increased release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (Solinas et al., 2002).

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  Routledge Library Editions: Addictions

  • Various Authors(Author)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  Sanger, D.J. and Blackman, D. E. (1982) Drug-induced cognitive and behav- ioural change. In A. Burton (ed.) The Pathology and Psychology of Cognz'tz"on. London: Methuen. Snyder, S. H. and Bennett, J. P. (1976) Neurotransmitter receptors in the brain: biochemical identification. Annual Revz"ew of Phys-iology 38: 153-75. 2 Behavioural principles in psychopharmacology James E. Barrett Introduction Although the effects of Psychoactive Drugs can be studied at many different levels, ultimately any analysis must address issues of a behav- ioural nature. Experiments involving isolated neurons or receptor activity, for example, take on added significance when related to the intact behaving organism. On a different level, psychiatric disorders are most clearly manifested and described as disturbances in behav- iour. Drugs with potential therapeutic efficacy in psychiatry are clinically evaluated by their ability to alter the dominant behavioural symptoms of a particular disease. The excessive use of abused drugs is also characterized by marked changes in drug-taking and drug- induced behaviour. The conspicuousness and importance of behav- iour under such conditions should not be interpreted as only indicating that it is merely a passive transmitter of changes or influences occur- ring at a different level. Often, as we shall see, behaviour itself and the variables that control it can play a prominent and active role in directly determining drug action. The broad field of psychopharmacology embraces diverse disci- plines that address issues which are eventually translated into ques- tions about behaviour. Behavioural pharmacology, a field which 22 Aspects of Psychopharmacology combines principles taken from the experimental analysis of behav- iour and experimental pharmacology, is an essential component of psychopharmacological research. An organism's behaviour is dynami- cally related to the environment in which that behaviour takes place.

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  Beyond Drugs

  • Stanley Einstein(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Pergamon

    (Publisher)

  C H A P T E R 2 Drugs: What They Do! Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep Which thou owedst yesterday. William Shakespeare Othello (The Moor of Venice, Act. Ill, Scene III) Much of what we do about people using drugs is related to our notion of what the drugs themselves do. It is easy to conclude from what we hear and read that certain drugs are dangerous and others aren't. The focus always seems to be on the drug. And the natural conclusion is that danger-ous drugs should be tightly controlled and removed from our reach; the not-so-dangerous drugs, called medicines, must be made available, but regulated; and safe medicines or drugs such as aspirin, nonprescription sleeping aids, and relaxers should be available to almost anyone who has the money to purchase them. The supposed dangers of certain drugs are by now known to most adults and youngsters as follows: Physical dysfunctions Speed (amphetamine) kills. Hallucinogens cause genetic deformity and chromosome breakage. Psychological dysfunctions LSD causes psychosis. Social dysfunctions Hallucinogens lead to turning on, tuning in, and dropping out of society. Reinforced drug use Marijuana leads to the use of hard drugs. Deviant functioning Heroin leads to violent crimes. Sexual functioning Cocaine enhances sexual drive and func-tioning. 29 30 Beyond Drugs Religious experiences Hallucinogens cause religious, mystical experiences. Emotional reactions Alcohol causes uncontrollable aggression. The validity of each statement can be assessed only when we know what drugs actually do and what they don't do. For certain drugs, such as marijuana, the lack of data from scientifically based research makes most statements anecdotal. Other drugs, which we really find hard to accept as drugs, such as alcohol, tobacco products, coffee, and tea, we have diffi-culty in associating with dangers to the user and those with whom he comes in contact.

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  Substance Use Disorders

  Assessment and Treatment

  • Charles E. Dodgen, W. Michael Shea(Authors)
  • 2000(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  1 CLINICAL PHARMACOLOGY AND CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES Prior to discussing the pharmacological properties of individual substances, this text will present some discussion of general concepts that can be used to facilitate understanding. Regarding epidemiology, this chapter will explore general trends in substance use prior to presenting information specific to each substance. DEFINITIONS AND GENERAL CONCEPTS OF PHARMACOLOGY The information on pharmacology, relative to information in other chapters of this publication, is technical and detailed. The basic principles of pharmacology com-prise a store of knowledge best presented in traditional, textbook style. Pharmacology is “the study of the effects of chemical substances on living systems” (Blum, 1984, p. 10). Due to the obvious risks, most information in phar-macology is obtained from animal studies (Blum, 1984). Several problems arise with the use of animal models: 1. Some difficulties are not predictable across species. Doses of a drug may have no effect when tested on nonhumans but may have a significant effect on hu-mans. 1 2. In animal studies, thousands of subjects are employed. In actual drug us-age, millions of people are involved so that seemingly insignificant problems may be very significant with larger scale use. 3. Some cognitive, behavioral and social effects of substances cannot be pre-dicted from nonhumans. Tolerance is a condition in which “repeated doses of the same amount of drug become diminishingly effective and progressively larger doses are required to se-cure a desired effect” (Blum, 1984, p. 6). Tolerance develops to different degrees across classes of substances (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). For ex-ample, opioid and amphetamine users may develop substantial tolerance; alcohol and nicotine users may develop tolerance to a lesser degree.

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