Influences on Drug Use

10 Key excerpts on "Influences on Drug Use"

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  Drug Use and Misuse

  • Stephen Maisto, Mark Galizio, Gerard Connors, , Stephen Maisto, Stephen Maisto, Mark Galizio, Gerard Connors(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Factors Influencing Drug Effects Biological Factors Psychological Factors Social and Environmental Factors Tolerance Types of Tolerance Explanations of Tolerance Behavioral Pharmacology Reinforcement and Punishment Operant Principles and Drug Dependence Drug Discrimination Conflict Paradigm Animal Models and Human Drug Use Human Behavioral Pharmacology Ethical Questions Placebo Controls New Drug Development Clinical Trials and FDA Approval Distribution and Marketing Generic Drugs Summary C H A P T E R 5 Psychopharmacology and New Drug Development Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 104 Chapter Five In Chapter 4 we identified seven steps of the drug experience, but discussed only five of them. In this chapter, we focus on Steps 6 and 7; Step 6 concerns biolog- ical and psychological factors that affect the experiences humans have when they use drugs, and Step 7 concerns social and environmental factors and their influ- ence on the drug experience. Our discussion of these steps raises the question of how the drug experience relates to human drug use, which leads to our consider- ation of research methods in the field of psychopharmacology. (Another narrower use of the term psychopharmacology is the study of drugs used to treat mental ill- ness.) Psychopharmacology research, as you might guess, focuses on the reasons behind drug use patterns and on the patterns of use themselves. Information on research basics will prepare you for understanding the process of discovering and developing new drugs, which we review in the last sections of this chapter.

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  Drugs and the Future

  Brain Science, Addiction and Society

  • David J. Nutt, Trevor W. Robbins, Gerald V. Stimson, Martin Ince, Andrew Jackson(Authors)
  • 2006(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  362 SOCIOLOGY AND SUBSTANCE USE increase funding in the areas of drug preven- tion, drug treatment and drug enforcement and to ensure that interventions in each of these areas are maximally effective. 2 INTRODUCTION This report looks at the contribution of sociological research on substance use and misuse within the UK. It is possible to view drug use as an individual behaviour in which a given person consumes a given drug and experiences the effects of that sub- stance on his or her system. Sociology, how- ever, reminds us that drug-using behaviours are not simply a matter of what the indi- vidual person does. Rather, drug use exists within a cultural context: some drugs are legal and some are not, some people have anti-drug attitudes and some have pro-drug attitudes, some people enjoy drugs that have a euphoric effect and others prefer drugs that have a depressive effect. As well as being substances in their own right, drugs can also be associated with a certain kind of image, for example, some substances may seem ‘cool’ and ‘attractive’, others may have the reputation of being ‘dirty’ and ‘danger- ous’. These social factors can influence what drugs are used, how they are used, who uses them, and the impact of drug use on society. Understanding these dimensions is the role of sociologists and it is their contribution that we look at in this report. Section 3 provides a short overview of sociological research in the area. Section 4 examines what is known about the preva- lence of drug use and considers possible changes in its prevalence over the next 20 years. In Section 5, we look at individ- ual and sociocultural factors associated with the onset and progression of illegal drug use. We consider how these factors may change over the next 20 years and with what impact. Section 6 focuses on treatment, considering the effectiveness of existing treatments and the scope for new treatments as the drug problem itself evolves.

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  Health and Well-being for Young People

  Building Resilience and Empowerment

  • Colin Goble, Natasha Bye-Brooks(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Red Globe Press

    (Publisher)

  Genetic theories These suggest that an individual’s genetic makeup predisposes them towards the likelihood of substance use/misuse. The main evidence lies in the way patterns of use and addiction can run in families. Schuckit (1980) developed the genetic predisposition theory, but also acknowledged that other factors – such as the availability of the substance – must be present too. A purely genetic explanation is almost impossible to prove in reality as there are so many other possible influences, or ‘confounding variables’, that could act upon a young person (Innovation with Substance and Southampton Healthy Schools, 2011). Psychopharmacology theories Psychopharmacological theories deal with substance abuse, addiction and treatment by focusing on the chemical reactions induced by drug use. Addic-tion can be explained, for example, in the ‘incentive-sensitization’ theory, which suggests that addictive behaviour is caused by the drug-induced changes – feelings/sensitization – in the nervous system (Innovation with Substance and Southampton Healthy Schools, 2011). Biological factors are particularly signifi-cant when responding to the needs of young people experiencing addiction. They underpin medical responses such as substituting less harmful substances (such as methadone) for more harmful ones (such as heroin) as part of a behav-ioural ‘weaning’ process, culminating ultimately in the cessation of all substance use. It is recognized, however, that substance use has psychological dimensions which also need to be addressed. SUBSTANCE USE AND MISUSE 139 Psychological theories Reinforcement theory is based on the idea central to behaviourism that individu-als will tend to maximize positive experiences and minimize negative ones, and will pursue or avoid specific behaviours in accordance with past experiences. Reinforcement can be ‘positive’ – the increase of pleasure – or ‘negative’ – the cessation of stress, discomfort or pain.

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  Drugs of Abuse and Addiction

  Neurobehavioral Toxicology

  • Raymond Niesink, R.M.A. Jaspers, L.M.W. Kornet, J.M. van Ree, Raymond Niesink, R.M.A. Jaspers, L.M.W. Kornet, J.M. van Ree(Authors)
  • 1998(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  They argue that the strength of the response weakens other types of previously reinforced and motivated behavior. The psychopharmacology and laboratory based work is of theoretical importance but to date has had limited clinical or service application. However, it may be that the behavioral models are central to well-organized and well-delivered treatment services that have a clear understanding of the mechanisms underlying addiction. 8 Natural history of drug use The staging or sequencing of patterns of use may be divided into experimental, recreational, and continual or compulsive. Experimental drug use may now be a form of normative adolescent risk-taking behavior. Peer influences are likely to be the major predictor of experimental drug use and also likely to influence the evolution to more regular drug use. The consumption of one drug increases the likelihood of consuming other drugs so that those who consume tobacco are more likely to take cannabis and those who use cannabis are more likely to consume other illicit drugs25, but this relationship is neither causative nor predictable. The relationship between amount consumed, problems, and dependence is not direct but there is a very significant interaction with levels of consumption likely to predict problems 18 Chapter 1 Aspects of drug use and drug dependence and dependence, but does not invariably predict so. Heroin and cocaine are similar to nicotine in their reinforcing properties and regular use is more likely to be associated with dependence, while environmental factors are probably the key factors in initial and irregular drug use. Regular or dependent drug use may have its own motivational properties which will be strongly stimulated by environmental cues. A number of key longitudinal studies from early adolescence into early adulthood 23 • 33 suggest that the level of drug use is a predictor of future drug use and that initiation before 15 is associated with more developmental disruption.

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  Drug Use and Abuse

  A Comprehensive Introduction

  • Howard Abadinsky(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Furthermore, contrary to conventional wisdom, research has found that drug use is typically a group activity of socially well-integrated youngsters (Glassner and Loughlin 1989). That is, con-trary to some psychological views, the adolescent drug user is socially competent (or ego sufficient). Sociological studies often challenge the conflicting views of the adolescent drug user as either a deviant isolate or a peer-driven conformist. Sociology cautions us to distinguish drug use that is situational and transitional from drug dependence or addiction, which is compulsive and dysfunctional. In England, the much smaller number of adolescents who use illicit drugs regularly, in contrast to those who have tried illicit drugs, “reminds us that because a young person has tried an illicit drugs does not mean that they will necessarily develop a pattern of long term misuse” (Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs 1998: xii). “Many studies show that both sub-stance use problems and delinquency start during mid-adolescence and then stop or sharply decrease for many individuals in their 20s and 30s” (Mulvey, Schubert, and Chassin 2010: 4). We will examine the implications in a discussion of labeling and drift . We are ethically restricted in our search for explanations of human drug dependence. Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300 Psychology and Sociology of Drug Use 173 STAGES OF DRUG USE Sociologists have studied and labeled the stages that alcohol, heroin, and cocaine users go through on the path to dependence—a path that is not inevitable. Alcohol The alcoholic typically passes through several stages on the way to becoming addicted to alcohol (Catanzarite 1992): ➤ Social drinking : In this initial pattern, alcohol is used to enhance pleasant social situ-ations.

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  Drugs Across the Spectrum

  • Raymond Goldberg, Pardess Mitchell(Authors)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Certain social groups determine how a drug is used. For instance, it was found that social milieu of street life leads many young people to escalate their drug use, resulting in their injecting drugs. 80 Furthermore, having a sexual minority status (LGBTQ) places people at a higher risk for alcohol and drug abuse. 81 Many gay men, and to a lesser extent lesbians, use drugs to deal with homophobia. 82 Drug use by soldiers in Vietnam provides an example of the moderating effect of social environ-ment. At least 35% of enlisted men used heroin, and more than half of them became addicted while in Vietnam. 83 Contrary to dire expectations and warnings of government officials, only 10% of the addicts remained addicted after returning to the United States. One reason is that the social sanctions revolving around heroin use while in Vietnam were quite different from those found in the United States. Rebelliousness Another reason why some people take drugs is that they are told not to. Rebelliousness is one of the best predictors of increased drug use among adoles-cents. A strong relationship has been found between drug use and recklessness and predelinquent behav-iors such as aggression and poor emotional control. Young people rebel against the conventions of society, including warnings about drugs’ dangers. Institutions such as religious groups, schools, and government identify rules by which people should behave. The more affiliated one is with these institutions, the less likely one is to use drugs. Similarly, participating on ON CAMPUS A study conducted on college students showed stress and neuroticism as significant predictors of drug use. This study analyzed two types of drug users: minor drug users were defined as marijuana and alcohol users and major drug users, which included narcotic use. Results from this study indicate higher levels of neuroticism (characterized by anxiety, fear, jealousy, envy).

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  Reducing Adolescent Risk

  Toward an Integrated Approach

  • Daniel Romer(Author)
  • 2003(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications, Inc

    (Publisher)

  Although much has been learned about the social and environmental factors that pro-mote substance use in this group, less is known about the biological determinants. Advances in the field of genetics are begin-ning to fill this gap in our knowledge. Several converging lines of research have provided consistent support for heritable influences on adolescent substance use and dependence. This chapter summarizes the evidence for the role of genetic factors in substance abuse and describes how insights from this line of research might be applied to the design and implementation of novel approaches to pre-vent substance use and dependence among high-risk youth. We begin by presenting a bio-behavioral model of adolescent substance use, an over-arching framework for integrating research on genetics, personality, and substance use patterns. Following a brief introduction to the methods used in genetics research, we summarize briefly the evidence for genetic influences on tobacco use, alcohol use, and use of illicit drugs. We then present evidence for the mediating role of heritable personal-ity traits involving sensation seeking and impulse control. Finally, we explore how this new knowledge might be used to develop better prevention approaches and the chal-lenges inherent in applying these findings to adolescent populations. BIO-BEHAVIORAL MODEL OF ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE USE A bio-behavioral model of adolescent sub-stance abuse is proposed as an overarching conceptual framework for understanding the bio-behavioral mechanisms by which genetic factors may contribute to substance use in adolescents. This model is an exten-sion and integration of the biosocial model (Zuckerman & Kuhlman, 2000) and the bio-behavioral model of tobacco use (Lerman & Niaura, in press). As illustrated in Figure 18.1, there are three basic tenets of this model. First, there are multiple biological path-ways by which genetic factors may influence adolescent substance use.

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  Substance Use Disorders

  A Biopsychosocial Perspective

  • Perry M. Duncan(Author)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Cambridge University Press

    (Publisher)

  In short, when addictive behavior results from drug-produced brain dysfunction, environmental conditions and cognitive processes, including learn- ing, can also influence the altered behavior. The Biopsychosocial Explanation of SUD Recognizing the role of the many determinants of human behavior, including biological, environmental, and developmental factors, is the underlying principle of the biopsychosocial (BPS) approach to understanding SUD, as introduced in Chapter 1. Introduction 217 Cultural and other social and environmental factors are important determinants of the socially acceptable use of alcohol and other drugs. Deviant and harmful use of drugs – including SUD – is also influenced by multiple causes including those not directly linked to abnormal brain function. Robert West maintains that there are three basic types of causes that underlie addiction: those related to such states as anxiety and depression, those related to rewarding drug effects such as incentive sensitization, and those resulting from environmental causes such as social relations or other distressing circumstances (West 2006). Many other scientists and scholars who investigate SUD also present evidence that nonbiological factors influence addictive behavior (e.g., Donovan 2005, Heilig et al. 2016, Shurtleff et al. 2009, Vaillant 2003, Washton and Zweben 2006). For many years, there was animosity between disease theory and cognitive behavioral explanations of addiction. To advocates of disease theory, the assertion of behavioral theorists that general principles of behavioral control and learning produce the destructive behavior seemed uncomfortably close to earlier explana- tions that SUD was essentially immoral and willful misbehavior. A wider accept- ance of a biopsychosocial explanation of SUD has removed much of the theoretical disagreement between older versions of disease and behavioral theories.

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  Beyond Drugs

  • Stanley Einstein(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Pergamon

    (Publisher)

  The meaning of drug-taking behavior has to be considered, as well as the pharmacology of the drug itself. It is questionable whether the training of any representative of law enforcement, like the training of doctors and nurses, is sufficient to handle adequately any but one facet of this multifaceted behavior. What is a Drug? So what is a drug? A broad, unbiased, scientific definition would be of great use in helping us to understand the extent of the drug problem and Critical Issues and Definitions 7 how better to cope with it. Such a definition is given by Modell (1967), who says that a drug is any substance that by its chemical nature alters the structure or functioning in the living organism. This definition is not moralistic and not committed to a limited social arena. Its focus is on chemicals with active ingredients that affect behavior, physical or psychological. This definition forces us to consider as drugs not only illicit substances such as heroin or marijuana, or legal substances used in unacceptable ways, such as amphetamines to get high on* but also alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and even food. Each has active chemical ingredients, and each has both positive and negative consequences associated with its use. This definition offers part of the key to understanding the present-day drug problem. Substances and reactions to substances are classified ac-cording to social usage during a given time. Whether a given substance is associated with serious or relatively minor medical, psychiatric, or social consequences is of relatively little importance in deciding whether it is in or out for this season of man. One might conclude that this means that society's decisions about drugs are arbitrary. In a sense, this is so. In the same sense, almost any indi-vidual and community decision is arbitrary. A decision or behavior that is arbitrary is neither good nor bad—it just is.

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  Drug Abuse in the Modern World

  A Perspective for the Eighties

  • Gabriel G. Nahas, Henry Clay Frick, Gabriel G. Nahas, Henry Clay Frick(Authors)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Pergamon

    (Publisher)

  In addi-tion, WHO lists as follows the more important factors which appear to facilitate drug use: 1. the ready availability of drugs; 2. general public acceptance of the use of mood modifiers; 3. increasing mobility, particularly of youth; k. peer group pressures; 5. an abundance of information about drug effects and sources; 6. an unstable or broken home The fact that addictive drugs act as reinforcers, may account for their compulsive use characterized by: a craving for the drug a major involvement in its use, in the securing of its supply a high tendency to relapse after discontinuing usage The foregoing pattern of compulsive behavior towards drug use, include the minor psychostimulants such as tobacco and caffei ne(which do not produce neuro-psycho-logical toxicity). 20 DRUG ABUSE IN THE MODERN WORLD TOLERANCE TO ADDICTIVE DRUGS Tolerance is the necessity to increase the dosage of a drug in order to obtain the initial psychotropîc effect. (18) The capacity of the animal or human organism to tolerate elevated doses of drugs of abuse, without displaying major physical damage is very high. It îs of the order of 1 to 10 for the opiates, alchohol, barbiturates; of 1 to 50 for cocaine, (19) of 1 to 200 for cannabis products. (20) Such a pattern indicates that the lower the acute somatic toxicity of a drug, the greater its tolerance will be. Furthermore, naturally occurring psychoactive drugs of abuse are as a whole less toxic than their synthetic derivatives. Heroin } Morphine Amphetamine ^ Cocaine DMHP > THC The development of tolerance to these drugs is rapid, a matter of days or weeks. After discontinuation of drug usage, this tolerance wears off within days or weeks. The mechanism of tolerance is not entirely elucidated. However, it is related to biochemical alterations produced by the drug in the organism, mainly in the liver and the brain of the user.

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