Psychology
Research Techniques
Research techniques in psychology refer to the methods used to gather and analyze data for scientific investigation. These techniques can include experiments, surveys, observations, and case studies, among others. Researchers use these techniques to systematically study behavior and mental processes, aiming to understand, predict, and potentially influence human behavior.
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10 Key excerpts on "Research Techniques"
eBook - PDF- Douglas Bernstein, , , (Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Throughout this book, you will see that research in psychology has created a large body of knowledge that is being put to good use in many ways. Let’s now look at the scientific methods that psychologists use in their research and at some of the pitfalls that lie in their path. RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY How do psychologists learn about people? Like other scientists, psychologists try to achieve four main goals in their research: to describe a phenomenon, to make predictions about it, and to introduce enough control in their research to allow them to explain the phenomenon with some degree of confidence. Five research methods have proven especially useful for gathering the evidence needed to reach each of these goals. They include observational methods, case studies, surveys, correla-tional studies, and experiments. Observational Methods: Watching Behavior Sometimes, the best way to describe behavior is through observational methods , such as naturalistic observation , the process of watching without interfering as behavior occurs in the natural environment (Hoyle, Harris, & Judd, 2002). This method is especially valuable when more noticeable methods might alter the behavior you want to study. For example, if you ask people to keep track of how often they exercise, they might begin to exercise more than usual, so their reports might give a false impression of their typical behavior. Much of what we know about, say, gender differences in how children play and commu-nicate with one another has come from psychologists’ observations in classrooms and playgrounds. Observations of adults, too, have provided valuable insights into friendships, couple communication patterns, and even responses to terrorism (e.g., Mehl & Pennebaker, 2003a, 2003b).
- Lorelle J. Burton, Drew Westen, Robin M. Kowalski(Authors)
- 2022(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
A sophisticated psycho- logical theory may include many accurate propositions that are diffcult to precisely empirically test, because humans are complex and psychology is a relatively young discipline. Science, like all human cognition, involves constructing a mental model or ‘map’ of a phenomenon we want to understand, using all the information at our disposal. That means tentatively accepting hypotheses supported by our strongest methods, even more tentatively holding other Pdf_Folio:225 CHAPTER 5 Research methods in psychology 225 theoretical beliefs that have some basis in more limited methods, and gradually weeding out those beliefs that do not withstand closer scientifc scrutiny when the technolo- gies are available to test them. In its broadest sense, a scientifc, empiricist attitude in psychology means keeping your eyes wide open in as many settings as possible and constantly testing what you believe. Philosophers of science sometimes distinguish between the context of discovery (in which phenomena are observed, hypotheses are framed and theories are built) and the context of justification (in which hypotheses are tested empirically). Case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys are often most useful in the context of dis- covery precisely because the investigator is not structuring the situation. The more experimenters exert control, the less unconstrained behaviour — behaviour as it occurs in nature — they see. Descriptive methods often foster the kind of exploration that leads researchers to ask the right questions. In con- trast, in the context of justifcation, where hypotheses are put to the test, the best designs are experimental, quasi- experimental and sometimes correlational. By using infer- ential statistics, researchers can assess the likelihood that their fndings are genuine and, by implication, that their theories and hypotheses may have merit.
eBook - PDF- Mel Churton, Anne Brown(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Red Globe Press(Publisher)
Chapter 7 Research Techniques By the end of this chapter you should be able to: • identify the Research Techniques most commonly used by sociologists and give a definition of each • give examples of research studies using each technique and understand the rationale behind the choice of method in each case • pinpoint the advantages and disadvantages of each technique • evaluate the relative merits of Research Techniques • distinguish between experimental and non-experimental techniques • distinguish between and give examples of quantitative and qualitative techniques INTRODUCTION In order to understand sociological research that has been conducted by others or undertake your own projects, it is important to have a working knowledge of the range of techniques available to sociologists, the rationale behind the choice of method and the relative merits of Research Techniques. This chapter outlines some of the most commonly used research methods, giving definitions and examples of each. It also includes some interpretation and application exercises to enable you to test your understanding of the various methods. You are encouraged to analyse the advantages and disadvantages of each method and evaluate their relative merits. Some attention is given to contemporary trends in the use of Research Techniques, although this theme is developed fur-ther in Chapter 8. This chapter starts by considering the distinction between experimental and non-experimental methods and then moves on to consider the nature of quantitative and qualitative methods. 236 Research Techniques 237 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Use of the scientific method in sociology is advocated by positivists (see Chapter 3 for a review of the rationale behind its use), although many crit-ics are skeptical about its validity in sociological research. The controversy over its usefulness is dealt with in Chapter 10. For now, attention will focus on the nature of scientific methodology.
eBook - PDF- Martin Dempster, Donncha Hanna(Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- For Dummies(Publisher)
16 Part I: Getting Started with Research Methods or an oral presentation. Chapter 14 guides you through the process to help you prepare the perfect poster or presentation. Reports, posters and presentations share similar information, but they tend to do it in different ways – so you need to be aware of the discrepancies. Whichever format you present your research in, it must be appropriate and consistent with universal psychological standards. Chapter 15 discusses the American Psychological Association (APA) standards, outlines tips on how to report numbers and, importantly, gives you guidelines for correct referenc-ing procedures. Failure to reference correctly means you can be accused of plagiarism – which is a serious academic offence! Find out what plagiarism is and how to avoid inadvertently committing plagiarism in Chapter 15. Exploring Research Methods Research methods are the methods you use to collect data for your research study. You won’t find a ‘right’ or ‘correct’ research method for your study. Each method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Some methods are more suitable for investigating specific hypotheses or research questions – and any method can be performed poorly. For example, if you want to find out about the experience of living with bone cancer, an interview may be more suit-able than a questionnaire; however, a well-designed and validated questionnaire is far better than a poorly planned and badly executed interview. The following sections consider some potential data-collection methods that you may consider for your research study. Questionnaires and psychometric tests Most of the things psychologists are interested in are hard to measure. If you want to measure someone’s height or weight, however, it’s relatively straightforward. When you can directly measure something, it’s known as an observed variable (or sometimes a manifest variable) – like height or weight.
eBook - PDFA Critical History and Philosophy of Psychology
Diversity of Context, Thought, and Practice
- Richard T. G. Walsh, Thomas Teo, Angelina Baydala(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
11 Constructing psychological research Chapter outline Introduction 502 Part 1 The language of research 504 Psychologists ’ scienti fi c language 504 Conclusion 507 Part 2 Investigative practice with humans 508 Research relationships 508 Box 11.1 Current investigate practices 511 Ethical relationships with humans 512 Conclusion 516 Part 3 Investigative practice with animals 517 Orientations towards animal psychology 517 Ethical relationships with animals 522 Conclusion 523 Part 4 Methods for gathering data 524 Non-experimental methods 524 Experimentation 525 Box 11.2 Group vs. case studies 528 The social psychology of psychological research 529 Qualitative methods 533 Conclusion 535 Part 5 Measurement and quantitative analysis 536 History of quanti fi cation and measurement 537 History of statistics 539 Issues in psychological statistics 541 Qualitative methodology 544 Conclusion 545 Part 6 Research report-writing 546 Scienti fi c rhetoric and report-writing 546 APA style 548 Conclusion 550 Part 7 Thematic review 550 Science, pseudoscience, or interpretive science 551 Intersubjectivity 552 Summary 552 Introduction .................................................................................. After the Scientific Revolution natural science came to overshadow religious knowledge about nature and human nature. Many natural philosophers became disenchanted with divine and mysterious explanations. They regarded nature as mechanistic, manipulable for human ends, even conquerable. Emergent empirical methods and quantification techniques enhanced scientists ’ confidence about their work. Societally, economically privileged Western nations became increasingly rationalized and bureaucratic. Efficient administration of industry, commerce, and government depended on applications of systematic knowledge; consequently, social management of individuals escalated. In addition, cultivating individual experience became culturally desirable.
eBook - PDF- Siri Carpenter, Karen Huffman(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
However, therapists are legally required to break confidentiality if a client threatens violence to him- or herself or to others, if a client is suspected of abusing a child or an elderly person, and in other limited situations (Campbell et al., 2010; Pope & Vasquez, 2011; Tyson & Jones, 2011). informed consent A participant’s agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect. debriefing Upon completion of the research, participants are informed of the study’s design and purpose, and explanations are provided for any possible deception. Research Methods 15 s ychologists draw on four major types of psy-chological research—experimental, descrip-tive, correlational, and biological ( Study Organizer 1.2 ). All have advan-tages and disadvantages, and most psycholo-gists use several methods to study a single problem. In fact, when multiple methods lead to similar conclusions, scientists have an espe-cially strong foundation for concluding that one variable does affect another in a particular way. Research Methods LEARNING OBJECTIVES Experimental Research Experimental research is the most powerful research method because it allows the experimenter to manipulate and control the variables, and thereby deter-mine cause and effect. Only through an ex-periment can researchers examine a single fac-tor’s effect on a particular behavior (Goodwin, 2011). That’s because the only way to discover which of many factors has an effect is to experi-mentally isolate each one. P 1. Explain why only experiments can identify the cause and effect underlying particular patterns of behavior. 2. Describe the three key types of descriptive research. 3. Define positive and negative correlation. 4. Summarize important methods used in biological research. RETRIEVAL PRACTICE While reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words. Then compare your responses with those in Appendix B.
eBook - PDF- Denis Mareschal, Brian Butterworth, Andy Tolmie, Denis Mareschal, Brian Butterworth, Andy Tolmie(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
Research Methods in Educational Psychology Andy Tolmie Research Methods in Educational Psychology 111 There is an inherently greater affinity between the methods and theoretical concerns of the neuroscience of learning and educational psychology: both are directed at understanding the basic processes of learning and the factors facili- tating or constraining these. If educational neuroscience seeks to find points of convergence between the different research traditions, these are more likely to be found here than between neuroscience and pure educational research, at least at this point in time. This chapter will consequently focus predominantly on the methodologies employed within educational psychology. The next section deals with the issue of measurement, and the strategies that have evolved over time for capturing learning processes. The following section moves on to consider how these measurement techniques are deployed within different types of study design, including school-based interventions. Throughout the chapter a central goal will be to highlight the specific constraints that limit potential approaches to research in educational psychology as compared to the work in experimental cognitive neuroscience that features in other chapters. Deciding What to Measure Research in educational psychology is primarily concerned with measuring two types of variable, learning outcomes and factors that predict or constrain these outcomes, in order to draw inferences about the processes connecting them. Because of an interest in specific learning phenomena, the emphasis is also typically on fine-grained measures of conceptual understanding or skill rather than general achievement in terms of curricular objectives, and on the impact of proximal factors such as learners’ academic self-concepts, teacher dialogue, and parental support during learning activities rather than struc- tural predictors of outcome such as socioeconomic status (SES).
eBook - PDF- John Hunsley, Catherine M. Lee(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
3. Research Project Please provide title, anticipated starting and completion dates, and funding source. Please provide a summary (i.e., no CONTINUED . . . Research Designs 83 Research Designs As we describe in the following sections, numerous research designs are used in clinical psy- chology research. These designs vary in the degree of experimental manipulation (from natu- ralistic observation of behaviour to true experimental designs) and in the number of participants involved (from single participant designs to epidemiological designs using tens of thousands of participants). Although it is tempting to view certain designs as better or stronger than others, this is an oversimplification of research in a given domain. All designs have advantages and disadvantages. As we describe below, some designs are better than others in their capacity to control certain threats to research validity. We cannot determine the value of a design without knowing the state of knowledge in a research domain. For example, once a research area is well developed, correlational designs are unlikely to add anything new to the scientific literature. On the other hand, in a relatively new research area, even a relatively simple case study may make a meaningful contribution to the literature. No single study can answer all of the important questions in a research area. Often a good study generates far more questions than answers. Research must be seen as cumulative, with each study contributing to the knowledge base of an area. Clinical psychology, as broadly defined in Chapter 1, involves the application of scientific knowledge to the understanding, assessment, prevention, and treatment of psychological disorders and distress. Many different research areas are relevant to the practice of clinical psychology. It is obvious that clinical prac- tice should be informed by research on assessment, prevention, and intervention.
eBook - PDF- Aparna Raghvan(Author)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Society Publishing(Publisher)
By no means are they all applicable to all types of qualitative research methods. 1.2. THE RECENT HISTORY OF QUALITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY The rise of qualitative methods in psychology has been paralleled, to some extent, by a decrease in quantitative researchers’ commitment to many of the trappings of science and positivism. It’s as if there are two graphs that are heading in different directions. For example, few, if any, psychologists nowadays believe that the goal of their research is to discover and develop universal scientific laws that apply to their field of study. Despite the fact that psychology as a whole remains staunchly empirical, what characterizes the typical psychologist’s research mindset today? The goal of a typical modern researcher, according to Silverman (1997), is to establish ‘cumulative, theoretically defined generalizations emerging from the critical sifting of evidence.’ To call this positivism would be to strip the term of most of its significance. Nonetheless, orthodox psychologists continue to favor decontextualized knowledge, in which generalizations are drawn from data without regard for culture or other contextual factors. However, others feel that as a result of this, psychology has become virtually ineffective outside of the Western population on which it was founded (Owusu-Bempah & Howitt, 2000). ‘Qualitative techniques have been part and parcel of psychology since its very beginnings,’ Willig and Stainton-Rogers (2008) contend. They were marginalized and silenced throughout the first 80 years of the twentieth century, yet they never totally vanished. (However, according to Billig (2008), the reaction received against modernism in psychology is far much Qualitative Research in Psychology: A Brief Introduction 5 older than this. While claiming that the Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713) was ‘nearly a pre-post-modern figure,’ he claims that qualitative psychologists.
eBook - PDF- Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett(Authors)
- 2020(Publication Date)
- Openstax(Publisher)
(credit: “taiproject”/Flickr) The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical: It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing. While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain. 36 2 • Psychological Research Access for free at openstax.org Use of Research Information Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies.
Index pages curate the most relevant extracts from our library of academic textbooks. They’ve been created using an in-house natural language model (NLM), each adding context and meaning to key research topics.
