Psychology
Research Methods in Psychology
Research methods in psychology refer to the systematic approaches used to investigate human behavior and mental processes. These methods include experiments, surveys, observations, and case studies, among others. By employing these methods, psychologists can gather empirical evidence to test hypotheses, make predictions, and draw conclusions about various aspects of human psychology.
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12 Key excerpts on "Research Methods in Psychology"
eBook - PDF- Martin Dempster, Donncha Hanna(Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- For Dummies(Publisher)
16 Part I: Getting Started with Research Methods or an oral presentation. Chapter 14 guides you through the process to help you prepare the perfect poster or presentation. Reports, posters and presentations share similar information, but they tend to do it in different ways – so you need to be aware of the discrepancies. Whichever format you present your research in, it must be appropriate and consistent with universal psychological standards. Chapter 15 discusses the American Psychological Association (APA) standards, outlines tips on how to report numbers and, importantly, gives you guidelines for correct referenc-ing procedures. Failure to reference correctly means you can be accused of plagiarism – which is a serious academic offence! Find out what plagiarism is and how to avoid inadvertently committing plagiarism in Chapter 15. Exploring Research Methods Research methods are the methods you use to collect data for your research study. You won’t find a ‘right’ or ‘correct’ research method for your study. Each method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Some methods are more suitable for investigating specific hypotheses or research questions – and any method can be performed poorly. For example, if you want to find out about the experience of living with bone cancer, an interview may be more suit-able than a questionnaire; however, a well-designed and validated questionnaire is far better than a poorly planned and badly executed interview. The following sections consider some potential data-collection methods that you may consider for your research study. Questionnaires and psychometric tests Most of the things psychologists are interested in are hard to measure. If you want to measure someone’s height or weight, however, it’s relatively straightforward. When you can directly measure something, it’s known as an observed variable (or sometimes a manifest variable) – like height or weight.
- Lorelle J. Burton, Drew Westen, Robin M. Kowalski(Authors)
- 2022(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
scepticism Not accepting an assertion as true until you have examined the evidence. scientific approach This approach to psychology involves using empirical methodologies such as observation and experimentation to gain knowledge. scientific method The standardised procedures of research used to gather and interpret objective information in a way that minimises error and yields dependable results. single-blind study A study in which participants are kept blind to crucial information, notably about the experimental condition in which they have been placed. standardised procedures Procedures applied uniformly to participants to minimise unintended variation. stratified random sample A sample selected to represent subpopulations proportionately, randomising only within groups (such as age or race). straw man A fallacy in argument based on attacking an opposing argument for the purpose of strengthening one’s own argument. subjectivism A theoretical approach that purports knowledge and meaning are subjective and individual and that there is no external or objective truth. survey research Research asking a large sample of participants questions, often about attitudes or behaviours, using questionnaires or interviews. theory A systematic way of organising and explaining observations. understanding Involves identifying the causes of a phenomenon. valid Said of a study that has sound procedures. validation Demonstrating the validity of a measure by showing that it consistently relates to other phenomena in theoretically expected ways. validity The extent to which a test measures the construct it attempts to assess, or a study adequately addresses the hypothesis it attempts to assess. variable A phenomenon that changes across circumstances or varies among individuals. Pdf_Folio:229 CHAPTER 5 Research Methods in Psychology 229 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1 Explain how experimental methods can be used by researchers to demonstrate causality.
No longer available |Learn more- S Alexander Haslam, Craig McGarty(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
3 Research MethodsKey goals for this chapter
- Explain the purpose of psychological measurement and the different forms it can take.
- Outline the major methods used in psychological research.
- Understand the key strengths and weaknesses of different research methods.
In the previous chapter, we asked why researchers do research in psychology and what they are looking for when they do. If a researcher has decided to go ahead and conduct research, the next obvious question is ‘What different research strategies are available?’.Our response to this question starts with an examination of the things that psychologists measure and of the basic types of psychological measurement. We then look in turn at the four major research methods that psychologists employ in order to conduct research: (a) experimental, (b) quasi-experimental, (c) survey and (d) case study. The strengths and limitations of each of these methods are considered in separate sections in which we also discuss the basis on which researchers choose among them. This choice can be difficult to make and quite controversial. At the same time, as we shall see, it is often affected by factors over which the researcher has limited control.Psychological measurement
In the previous chapter we noted that one of the things that differentiates psychology from other sciences is the fact that the things in which psychologists are typically interested – mental states and processes – can never be directly observed or measured. You cannot touch or see a mood, a thought, a disposition, a memory or an attitude. Instead, you can only observe things that are associated with
- Poul Rohleder(Author)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
There has been an increased diversity in the discipline of health psychology, with an increase in the use of diverse research methods, including qualitative research methods to explore issues of health and ill-health (Chamberlain & Murray, 2008). Qualitative methods have been found useful to explore and understand peoples’ experiences of illness and health, capturing the complexity of that experience and the complexities related to health care and promotion. Qualitative research methods have also been found to be a useful tool for advocating social change related to health and illness. Qualitative research methods have been less used in clinical psychology. Research in clinical psychology has been influenced by a medical approach, where randomized controlled trials and other quantitative research has been the preferred method for informing evidence-based practice. However, there has been a gradual increase in qualitative research in clinical psychology, particularly in the UK (as compared to the USA) (Harper, 2008). Qualitative methods have been found to be useful in understanding phenomena such as service user experiences, which traditionally was only taken into account when collecting a case history and investigating accounts of symptoms and their history. Increasingly, the experience of what it means and feels like to have mental health difficulties, or the experience of interactions with mental health services, has become an important focus of research.There are a number of qualitative research methods that are used in the social sciences and in psychology, and it is beyond the scope of this chapter to explore all or most of these in depth. Several books are available that detail the different methods used in qualitative research. Some recommended texts are listed at the end of this chapter. Here, I shall briefly outline some of the more commonly used methods used in health and clinical psychology, which are useful in taking a more critical approach to understanding issues in health and ill-health.DIFFERENT METHODS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
8.2 A brief description of some of these methods and examples of their use in clinical and health psychology now follows. I have presented them, more or less, in terms of their historical inclusion in clinical and health psychology.8.2.1 PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
Participatory action research is more a research approach than a specific method. It is normally included as a qualitative research method, in that it is concerned with capturing multiple perspectives and experience, as per the principles of social constructionism. Participatory action research aims to generate knowledge and practical solutions to problems affecting individuals and communities, through a process of participation and reflection with multiple partners (Kagan, Burton, & Siddiquee, 2008). The people who would typically be considered the ‘subjects’ of research actively participate in the generation of knowledge and seeking of practical solutions. The aim is to bring about social change, thus bringing together both the theoretical and the practical, and focuses on the individual as well as the social (be it, for example, the group, the community or the organization). In this sense, action research has as its primary purpose the production of “practical knowledge that is useful to people in the everyday conduct of their lives” (Reason & Bradbury, 2008: 4).
eBook - ePub- Matt Jarvis(Author)
- 2006(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
10 Research methods in sport psychology
By the end of this chapter, you should able to:Learning objectives- understand the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research
- describe the experimental method and discuss its use in sport psychology research
- describe the correlational method and discuss its use in sport psychology
- describe survey methods, including questionnaires, interviews and focus groups, and discuss their use in sport psychology
- outline the case study method and discuss its use in sport psychology
- discuss the use of archived data in sport psychology research
- critically discuss the usefulness of systematic review and meta-analysis as ways of drawing conclusions from multiple studies.
This chapter is devoted to understanding the sort of research conducted in sport psychology. There are two purposes of this. First, it should give you a slightly deeper understanding of the research you will come across in this and other books whilst studying sport psychology. For example, you might wish to understand better why a study was done the way it was, or what the strengths and limitations are of the different research methods. Second, it should help you begin to plan your own research. There is no attempt to include everything you might ever want to know about carrying out research; that would be a book in itself, and there are several good books of that sort. However, it should give you a sound background in some basic principles.Quantitative and qualitative research
Hayes (2000) defines quantitative methods as those ‘which involve the manipulation of numerical data’ (p 239). In other words, the researchers are dealing with information in the form of numbers. Qualitative approaches, on the other hand, attempt to draw out the meanings
- Cengiz Erisen(Author)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Taylor & Francis(Publisher)
Research Methods in Political Psychology
CENGİZ ERİŞEN* , ELİF ERİŞEN** & BİNNUR ÖZKEÇECİ-TANER†*Department of Political Science, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Sögütözü, Ankara, Turkey, **Department of Political Science, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA, †Department of Political Science, Hamline University, St Paul, MN, USAABSTRACT Given the interdisciplinary nature of political psychology research, the methods employed to produce scientific knowledge should be able to answer the questions raised in the discipline. The multitude of methods used in political psychology offers a variety of options for those interested in conducting research in political science. This article explains the basic structure of experimental design, survey research, and content analysis and briefly discusses the recent developments and interest growing on certain methods in the discipline. Each method is discussed in detail to the extent that would be sufficient to understand what one could achieve by using it.IntroductionThis article aims to provide the methodological background to better understand and interpret the articles included in this special issue that employ diverse methods commonly found in political psychology research from experimental design to survey research and to the content coding of speeches. These methods are not solely used in political psychology or political behavior research. Since a method can be used for any type of research question, no single discipline can claim a particular method. The important point here is that political science as well as other social science disciplines could implement any methodology that would make the hypothesis testing possible and provide the necessary answers to a research question.This special issue’s focus on research methodology in political psychology stems from the following reasoning: training on research methodology is essential for scholarly work. Today’s political science harbors several sub-disciplines such as political psychology, political behavior, comparative politics, and international relations all of which strongly rely on the proper use of methodology. It is critically important that scholarly work is designed in a way that employs a specific type of research tool to test its hypotheses or investigate its propositions. A set of hypotheses or propositions cannot be explored without a proper research design. This is critical not only for the improvement of the models depicting citizen behavior (in the case of political psychology and behavior) but also for the development of the discipline in general. Without proper methods of inquiry we cannot learn from our findings and cannot accumulate scientific knowledge.
eBook - PDF- Denis Mareschal, Brian Butterworth, Andy Tolmie, Denis Mareschal, Brian Butterworth, Andy Tolmie(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
Research Methods in Educational Psychology Andy Tolmie Research Methods in Educational Psychology 111 There is an inherently greater affinity between the methods and theoretical concerns of the neuroscience of learning and educational psychology: both are directed at understanding the basic processes of learning and the factors facili- tating or constraining these. If educational neuroscience seeks to find points of convergence between the different research traditions, these are more likely to be found here than between neuroscience and pure educational research, at least at this point in time. This chapter will consequently focus predominantly on the methodologies employed within educational psychology. The next section deals with the issue of measurement, and the strategies that have evolved over time for capturing learning processes. The following section moves on to consider how these measurement techniques are deployed within different types of study design, including school-based interventions. Throughout the chapter a central goal will be to highlight the specific constraints that limit potential approaches to research in educational psychology as compared to the work in experimental cognitive neuroscience that features in other chapters. Deciding What to Measure Research in educational psychology is primarily concerned with measuring two types of variable, learning outcomes and factors that predict or constrain these outcomes, in order to draw inferences about the processes connecting them. Because of an interest in specific learning phenomena, the emphasis is also typically on fine-grained measures of conceptual understanding or skill rather than general achievement in terms of curricular objectives, and on the impact of proximal factors such as learners’ academic self-concepts, teacher dialogue, and parental support during learning activities rather than struc- tural predictors of outcome such as socioeconomic status (SES).
eBook - PDF- Siri Carpenter, Karen Huffman(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
However, therapists are legally required to break confidentiality if a client threatens violence to him- or herself or to others, if a client is suspected of abusing a child or an elderly person, and in other limited situations (Campbell et al., 2010; Pope & Vasquez, 2011; Tyson & Jones, 2011). informed consent A participant’s agreement to take part in a study after being told what to expect. debriefing Upon completion of the research, participants are informed of the study’s design and purpose, and explanations are provided for any possible deception. Research Methods 15 s ychologists draw on four major types of psy-chological research—experimental, descrip-tive, correlational, and biological ( Study Organizer 1.2 ). All have advan-tages and disadvantages, and most psycholo-gists use several methods to study a single problem. In fact, when multiple methods lead to similar conclusions, scientists have an espe-cially strong foundation for concluding that one variable does affect another in a particular way. Research Methods LEARNING OBJECTIVES Experimental Research Experimental research is the most powerful research method because it allows the experimenter to manipulate and control the variables, and thereby deter-mine cause and effect. Only through an ex-periment can researchers examine a single fac-tor’s effect on a particular behavior (Goodwin, 2011). That’s because the only way to discover which of many factors has an effect is to experi-mentally isolate each one. P 1. Explain why only experiments can identify the cause and effect underlying particular patterns of behavior. 2. Describe the three key types of descriptive research. 3. Define positive and negative correlation. 4. Summarize important methods used in biological research. RETRIEVAL PRACTICE While reading the upcoming sections, respond to each Learning Objective in your own words. Then compare your responses with those in Appendix B.
eBook - ePubEssentials of Clinical Psychology
An Indian Perspective
- S. K. Mangal, Shubhra Mangal(Authors)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
In the use of the systematic or naturalistic observation method for investigation in clinical psychology, the investigator tries to observe and record the occurrence of the target problematic or clinical behavior in its natural setting in a systematic way for deriving the needed conclusion in view of the objectives of the research study. The observation for the required purposes may be carried out in ways like participant observation (participation of the observer in the events of observation), and non-participant observation (observing without letting the subjects know). The success of the observation method lies in the proper planning and preparation of the observation task and then carefully observing and recording the events of the observed behavior.Survey Method
The Survey method is also often utilized for investigation in clinical psychology, mainly to collect information about what exists by studying and analyzing important aspects of a pattern of a particular clinical aspect of the behavior of individuals with mental illness and disorders. Clinical psychologists and researchers may study and collect information regarding the nature, types, symptoms, and syndromes related to mental illness and disorders existing at present in different populations. They can study the etiology, rate of prevalence, inherent causes, and effectiveness of treatments associated with one or the other mental disorders. The quality of education and training provided to prospective clinical psychologists, and measures to develop them professionally, as well as formalizing their practice according to an accepted ethicalSurvey MethodThe method of investigation in which the investigator tries to collect information about what exists by involving all the members of a population’s representative sample to derive the desired specific information about one or the other clinical aspects of people’s behavior.mode, may also be the subjects of survey studies in clinical psychology. Additionally, the opinions, attitudes, and behavioral actions of various segments of the population toward individuals with intellectual disabilities, cognitive malfunctioning, emotional difficulties, memory loss, and severe psychological problems may be properly studied through the use of the survey method.
eBook - PDFChild Psychology
A Canadian Perspective
- Alastair Younger, Scott A. Adler, Ross Vasta(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
In the same way, psychologists have long debated the capabilities of the newborn. Only since the 1960s, however, have research techniques been developed that permit the scientific study of many re- lated questions. Another reason for including this chapter is that the remainder of the text presents a good deal of research evidence regarding developmental progress and processes. This evidence, for the most part, has been gathered through the methods described here, so it is helpful to approach it with an understanding of the differences between the correlational and experimental designs, longitudinal and cross-sectional experiments, and so on. These basics will also pave the way for the many more specific techniques and procedures used in various areas, which we describe as they come into play. SUMMARY KEY TERMS case study, p. 46 cohort effect, p. 54 comparative research, p. 58 correlation, p. 47 correlation coefficient (r), p. 47 cross-cultural studies, p. 57 cross-sectional design, p. 54 cross-sequential design, p. 55 cultural psychology, p. 58 dependent variable, p. 49 descriptive research, p. 44 ethnographic methods, p. 58 hypothesis, p. 42 independent variable, p. 49 interview method, p. 45 law (principle), p. 42 longitudinal design, p. 52 microgenetic method, p. 56 naturalistic observation, p. 44 negative correlation, p. 47 objectivity, p. 42 observer influences, p. 45 positive correlation, p. 47 quasi-experimental studies, p. 50 scatter diagram, p. 47 scientific method, p. 42 structured observation, p. 45 theory, p. 42 variable, p. 46 LEARNING OBJECTIVES LEARNING OBJECTIVE 2.1 Understand how researchers use the scientific method to study child development. 1. What is the scientific method? The scientific method consists of the rules that researchers use to conduct and describe their investigations. 2. What two roles do theories play in the research process? Theories help organize the information gathered from scientific studies.
eBook - ePub- Miles Hewstone, Wolfgang Stroebe, Klaus Jonas, Miles Hewstone, Wolfgang Stroebe, Klaus Jonas(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- BPS Blackwell(Publisher)
Quasi-Experimentation: Design and Analysis Issues for Field Settings (1979, with Thomas D. Cook). Campbell argued that the sophisticated use of many approaches, each with its own distinct but measurable flaws, was required to design reliable research projects. The paper he wrote with Donald W. Fiske to present this thesis, ‘Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait–multimethod matrix’ (1959), is one of the most frequently-cited papers in the social science literature.Summary
Research strategies are broad categories of research methods that are available to study social psychological phenomena. We began by noting that it often makes sense to study a phenomenon using more than one strategy. We identified three quantitative strategies (experiments and quasi-experiments, and survey research) before discussing qualitative research strategies.A CLOSER LOOK AT EXPERIMENTATION IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
What are the main elements of a social psychological experiment?
Experimentation has been the dominant research method in social psychology, mainly because it is unrivalled as a method for testing theories that predict causal relationships between variables. Standard guides to research in social psychology (e.g., Aronson, Ellsworth, Carlsmith, & Gonzales, 1990; Aronson, Wilson, & Brewer, 1998) treat experimentation as the preferred research method. In fact there are some grounds for questioning the extent to which experimental studies provide unambiguous evidence about causation, as we shall see later.We will first describe the principal features of the experimental approach to social psychological research. To assist this process of description, we will use Milgram’s (1965; see Chapter 8) well-known study of obedience as an illustrative example.Features of the social psychological experiment
The experimental scenario is the context in which the study is presented. In laboratory settings it is important to devise a scenario for which there is a convincing and well-integrated rationale, because the situation should strike participants as realistic and involving, and the experimental manipulations and the measurement process should not ‘leap out’ at the participant. In Milgram’s study, participants were told that the study was an investigation of the effects of punishment on learning. The participant was given, apparently at random, the role of ‘teacher’, while an accomplice of the experimenter posing as another participant (known as a confederate
eBook - PDF- John Hunsley, Catherine M. Lee(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
3. Research Project Please provide title, anticipated starting and completion dates, and funding source. Please provide a summary (i.e., no CONTINUED . . . Research Designs 83 Research Designs As we describe in the following sections, numerous research designs are used in clinical psy- chology research. These designs vary in the degree of experimental manipulation (from natu- ralistic observation of behaviour to true experimental designs) and in the number of participants involved (from single participant designs to epidemiological designs using tens of thousands of participants). Although it is tempting to view certain designs as better or stronger than others, this is an oversimplification of research in a given domain. All designs have advantages and disadvantages. As we describe below, some designs are better than others in their capacity to control certain threats to research validity. We cannot determine the value of a design without knowing the state of knowledge in a research domain. For example, once a research area is well developed, correlational designs are unlikely to add anything new to the scientific literature. On the other hand, in a relatively new research area, even a relatively simple case study may make a meaningful contribution to the literature. No single study can answer all of the important questions in a research area. Often a good study generates far more questions than answers. Research must be seen as cumulative, with each study contributing to the knowledge base of an area. Clinical psychology, as broadly defined in Chapter 1, involves the application of scientific knowledge to the understanding, assessment, prevention, and treatment of psychological disorders and distress. Many different research areas are relevant to the practice of clinical psychology. It is obvious that clinical prac- tice should be informed by research on assessment, prevention, and intervention.
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