Di'bil b. 'Ali

The Life and Writings of an Early 'Abbasid Poet

Leon Zolondek

• Editore: The University Press of Kentucky
• Anno: 2021
• ISBN:
  9780813195124
• Argomento: Literature
• Categoria: Asian Literary Criticism

Di'bil b. 'Al? (765–860) was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the best satirists in the school of Arabic poets which flourished during the early 'Abb?sid age. Leon Zolondek has collected, translated, and annotated 229 fragments of Di'bil's verse and has assembled materials for a reconstruction of his long-lost yet widely quoted Book of the Poets. Arabic texts of the poems and of the citations of Book of the Poets are included.

1

THE POET AND HIS TIME

THE ARAB period of Islamic history came to an end in 132/750 with the rise of the ‘Abbāsids. The center of the Islamic world moved from Syria to Irāq; the Syrians lost the power and influence which they had possessed under the Umayyads (40/661—132/750), and Persians now occupied the chief positions of the state. From 170/786 to 187/803 the Persian family of Khālid b. Barmak were the practical rulers of the ‘Abbāsid state; after the fall of the Bar-makids, the Persian family of Sahl played the major role, especially during the reign of the caliph al-Ma‘mūn (198/813—218/833), who in 210/825 married Būrān, the daughter of al-Hasan b. Sahl.

Not only did the Arabs lose their political leadership with the rise of the ‘Abbāsids, but their military dominance as well. Under the first caliphs the bodyguard was largely composed of Khurāsānid troops, to whom the ‘Abbāsids owed their rise to power. But during the reign of al-Mu‘tasim (218/833—227/842), whose mother was of Turkish origin, the army became dominated by Turks from central Asia. These forces, originally brought in to counterbalance the Persians and the Arabs, became the terror of Baghdād, and in 221/836 al-Mu‘tasim built for himself and his Turks the new capital of Sāmmarā, which remained the seat of the government for fifty-six years.

Besides the struggle between Arabs, Persians, and Turks for the political and military domination of the caliphate, the ‘Abbāsid regime was torn by strife over the succession, at times breaking into civil war, and by the politico-religious conflict between the Sunnites, or orthodox party, and the Shī‘ites. The Shī‘ites were partisans of ‘Alī, Muhammad’s cousin and husband of his daughter Fātimah. They claimed that Muhammad, before his death in 10/632, had appointed ‘Alī as his successor. The Shī‘ites regarded Abū Bakr, who was selected as the prophet’s successor, and the two caliphs who followed him as usurpers. ‘Alī himself became caliph in 35/656, but after his death five years later the office was wrested from his family—regarded by the Shī‘ites as his legitimate successors—by the Umayyads, who remained in power until 132/750. During the period of the Umayyad caliphate the Shī‘ite cause attracted many who were dissatisfied for political, social, economic, or religious reasons with the regime, including a number of groups who supported the descendants of various members of Muhammad’s family. Among these were the ‘Abbāsids, descendants of one of Muhammad’s uncles. After two years of civil war, a coalition of Shī‘ite, ‘Abbāsid, and Khurāsānid forces succeeded in driving the Umayyads from power. But it was an ‘Abbāsid caliph who now seized office, and to the irreconcilable Shī‘ites he and his successors were also usurpers, having preempted the office which properly belonged to the descendants of ‘Alī. Thus the politico-religious conflict continued during the reign of the ‘Abbāsids, and in 144/762 an abortive revolt was led by Ibrāhīm and Muhammad, great-grandsons of al-Hasan, the older son of ‘Alī, who became martyrs to the Shī‘ite cause. In 198/813 a conflict over the succession between al-Amīn and al-Ma’mūn ended with the death of al-Amīn. The confusion following this fight induced various Shī‘ite claimants, notably Ibn Tabātabā in Kūfah and Zaid b. Mūsā in Basrah, to rise against the ‘Abbāsids, but these rebellions were quelled by al-Ma’-mūn’s forces.

The early ‘Abbāsids (ca. 132/750—247/861) were patrons of culture and attracted the most brilliant poets and scholars to their court. The new capital, Baghdād, became the center for literature and culture, the marketplace where intellectual wares were brought to be appraised. The caliphs of the Golden Age literally awarded thousands for an apt phrase or verse at the right time and place. Not only the caliphs but the notables of the realm as well, especially the Barmakids, bestowed fortunes on their panegyrists. This patronage of the poets was not motivated only by the personal literary tastes of the caliphs and their courts. The poets from the pre-Islamic period onward were the press of the times and the molders of public opinion. Each change in the affairs of state was reflected in poetry. Under such circumstances, it would be too much to expect that the poets would be completely unbiased in their verses. Since they were dependent upon the beneficence of their patrons, they regarded their loyalty and their verses as stock in trade. It is therefore not surprising to find that the poets are inconsistent ideologically and politically. The poetry of the Golden Age reflects the struggles of a period of violent religious and political conflict.

The most original literary development of the early ‘Abbāsid period was the emergence of the ”new style” in poetry. The classical ode of the pre-Islamic age, qasīdah, with its glorification of desert life and Bedouin ideals, begins with reflections on the traces of the deserted dwelling places of the tribe, to which is linked an erotic prelude bewailing the poet’s separation from his beloved. The poet then professes to seek comfort by mounting his camel for a perilous ride through the desert. After depicting the danger and hardships of his journey, he concludes by addressing a request to a powerful personage. This form, which was still the model for the Umayyad poets, was not a suitable vehicle for the poetic tastes of the ‘Abbāsids. The patronage of the court, the pietistic spirit fostered by the state, the needs of the governmental secretaries, the foreign influence coming mainly from Persia, and the change in social conditions all contributed to the popularity of the ”new style,” which was distinguished by the use of novel similes, praise and satire exceeding the limits of credibility, simplicity of expression, avoidance of strange words, and padding.

One of the earliest exponents of the ”new style” was the blind Persian poet Bashshār b. Burd (d. 167/783), who was famous for his satires. Another representative was the half-Persian Abū Nuwās (d. 194/810), famous for his love and wine poems, who mocked the conventions of the classical ode. While Abū Nuwās portrayed the lighter side of life, his contemporary, Abū’l-‘Atahiyah (d. 213/828) composed religious poems expressing in simple language his pessimistic meditations on mortality.

The early critics, however, were philologians by profession, and held fast to the view that poetry of the pre-Islamic age had reached a perfection which no modern poet could hope to emulate. Those poets who desired their approval had to follow the traditions of the classical ode and its portrayal of Bedouin life. Such was their bias for the pre-Islamic poetry that to have been born after Islām was in itself proof of poetic inferiority. Not being of pure Arab stock or not to have learned Arabic in the pure atmosphere of the desert were charges often raised by the critics against the modern poets, many of whom had mixed ancestry.

The ‘Abbāsid dynasty attained its most brilliant period of political and intellectual growth soon after its establishment. It reached its peak in the period between the reigns of the third caliph, al-Mahdī (158/775—169/785), and the ninth, al-Wāthiq (227/842—232/847), more particularly in the days of Hārūn ar-Rashīd (170/786—193/809) and his son, al-Ma’-mūn (198/813—218/833). After al-Wāthiq the state began on the downward course which ended with its destruction at the hands of the Mongols in 656/1258. The period of the Golden Age, which forms the background of Di‘bil’s life and work, was a time of ferment not only in literature but in every aspect of the national life.

THE POET Abū ‘Alī Muhammad b. ‘Alī b. Razīn al-Khuzā‘ī was born in 148/765.¹ Through the meaning and origin of the nickname “Di‘bil” are unknown, the poet became famous under this name, and all of the sources refer to him by his nickname rather than his personal name.

Di‘bil’s birthplace is uncertain, the two cities of Kūfah and Qarqīsiyā being mentioned by different authorities.² According to the Kitāb aI-Aghānī, Di‘bil spent his youth in Kūfah, where he is said to have associated with disreputable companions and to have been guilty of robbery and even, in some versions, of murder.³ But these accounts are of questionable authenticity.⁴ That Di‘bil in his youth engaged in some mischievous activity is quite probable, but exactly what he did is open to question. That he was not alone in such behavior is attested by similar stories regarding Hammād ar-Rāwiyah (d. 156/772) and Di‘bil’s contemporary, the poet Bakr b. an-Nattāh.⁵

There is no reason to doubt that Di‘bil was of the tribe of Khuzā‘ah, though some of his contemporaries denied it, charging that he was not of pure Arab stock.⁶ These statements cannot be taken seriously, since rival poets regularly indulged in such accusations. That there was a question as to which branch of the Khuzā‘ah Di‘bil belonged is apparent from the two genealogies listed for him.⁷ The more frequently cited genealogy, which gives his descent through Budail b. Warq...