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Di'bil b. 'Ali
The Life and Writings of an Early 'Abbasid Poet
Leon Zolondek
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Di'bil b. 'Ali
The Life and Writings of an Early 'Abbasid Poet
Leon Zolondek
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Di'bil b. 'Al? (765â860) was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the best satirists in the school of Arabic poets which flourished during the early 'Abb?sid age. Leon Zolondek has collected, translated, and annotated 229 fragments of Di'bil's verse and has assembled materials for a reconstruction of his long-lost yet widely quoted Book of the Poets. Arabic texts of the poems and of the citations of Book of the Poets are included.
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LiteratureSous-sujet
Asian Literary Criticism1
THE POET AND HIS TIME
THE ARAB period of Islamic history came to an end in 132/750 with the rise of the âAbbÄsids. The center of the Islamic world moved from Syria to IrÄq; the Syrians lost the power and influence which they had possessed under the Umayyads (40/661â132/750), and Persians now occupied the chief positions of the state. From 170/786 to 187/803 the Persian family of KhÄlid b. Barmak were the practical rulers of the âAbbÄsid state; after the fall of the Bar-makids, the Persian family of Sahl played the major role, especially during the reign of the caliph al-MaâmĆ«n (198/813â218/833), who in 210/825 married BĆ«rÄn, the daughter of al-Hasan b. Sahl.
Not only did the Arabs lose their political leadership with the rise of the âAbbÄsids, but their military dominance as well. Under the first caliphs the bodyguard was largely composed of KhurÄsÄnid troops, to whom the âAbbÄsids owed their rise to power. But during the reign of al-Muâtasim (218/833â227/842), whose mother was of Turkish origin, the army became dominated by Turks from central Asia. These forces, originally brought in to counterbalance the Persians and the Arabs, became the terror of BaghdÄd, and in 221/836 al-Muâtasim built for himself and his Turks the new capital of SÄmmarÄ, which remained the seat of the government for fifty-six years.
Besides the struggle between Arabs, Persians, and Turks for the political and military domination of the caliphate, the âAbbÄsid regime was torn by strife over the succession, at times breaking into civil war, and by the politico-religious conflict between the Sunnites, or orthodox party, and the ShÄ«âites. The ShÄ«âites were partisans of âAlÄ«, Muhammadâs cousin and husband of his daughter FÄtimah. They claimed that Muhammad, before his death in 10/632, had appointed âAlÄ« as his successor. The ShÄ«âites regarded AbĆ« Bakr, who was selected as the prophetâs successor, and the two caliphs who followed him as usurpers. âAlÄ« himself became caliph in 35/656, but after his death five years later the office was wrested from his familyâregarded by the ShÄ«âites as his legitimate successorsâby the Umayyads, who remained in power until 132/750. During the period of the Umayyad caliphate the ShÄ«âite cause attracted many who were dissatisfied for political, social, economic, or religious reasons with the regime, including a number of groups who supported the descendants of various members of Muhammadâs family. Among these were the âAbbÄsids, descendants of one of Muhammadâs uncles. After two years of civil war, a coalition of ShÄ«âite, âAbbÄsid, and KhurÄsÄnid forces succeeded in driving the Umayyads from power. But it was an âAbbÄsid caliph who now seized office, and to the irreconcilable ShÄ«âites he and his successors were also usurpers, having preempted the office which properly belonged to the descendants of âAlÄ«. Thus the politico-religious conflict continued during the reign of the âAbbÄsids, and in 144/762 an abortive revolt was led by IbrÄhÄ«m and Muhammad, great-grandsons of al-Hasan, the older son of âAlÄ«, who became martyrs to the ShÄ«âite cause. In 198/813 a conflict over the succession between al-AmÄ«n and al-MaâmĆ«n ended with the death of al-AmÄ«n. The confusion following this fight induced various ShÄ«âite claimants, notably Ibn TabÄtabÄ in KĆ«fah and Zaid b. MĆ«sÄ in Basrah, to rise against the âAbbÄsids, but these rebellions were quelled by al-Maâ-mĆ«nâs forces.
The early âAbbÄsids (ca. 132/750â247/861) were patrons of culture and attracted the most brilliant poets and scholars to their court. The new capital, BaghdÄd, became the center for literature and culture, the marketplace where intellectual wares were brought to be appraised. The caliphs of the Golden Age literally awarded thousands for an apt phrase or verse at the right time and place. Not only the caliphs but the notables of the realm as well, especially the Barmakids, bestowed fortunes on their panegyrists. This patronage of the poets was not motivated only by the personal literary tastes of the caliphs and their courts. The poets from the pre-Islamic period onward were the press of the times and the molders of public opinion. Each change in the affairs of state was reflected in poetry. Under such circumstances, it would be too much to expect that the poets would be completely unbiased in their verses. Since they were dependent upon the beneficence of their patrons, they regarded their loyalty and their verses as stock in trade. It is therefore not surprising to find that the poets are inconsistent ideologically and politically. The poetry of the Golden Age reflects the struggles of a period of violent religious and political conflict.
The most original literary development of the early âAbbÄsid period was the emergence of the ânew styleâ in poetry. The classical ode of the pre-Islamic age, qasÄ«dah, with its glorification of desert life and Bedouin ideals, begins with reflections on the traces of the deserted dwelling places of the tribe, to which is linked an erotic prelude bewailing the poetâs separation from his beloved. The poet then professes to seek comfort by mounting his camel for a perilous ride through the desert. After depicting the danger and hardships of his journey, he concludes by addressing a request to a powerful personage. This form, which was still the model for the Umayyad poets, was not a suitable vehicle for the poetic tastes of the âAbbÄsids. The patronage of the court, the pietistic spirit fostered by the state, the needs of the governmental secretaries, the foreign influence coming mainly from Persia, and the change in social conditions all contributed to the popularity of the ânew style,â which was distinguished by the use of novel similes, praise and satire exceeding the limits of credibility, simplicity of expression, avoidance of strange words, and padding.
One of the earliest exponents of the ânew styleâ was the blind Persian poet BashshÄr b. Burd (d. 167/783), who was famous for his satires. Another representative was the half-Persian AbĆ« NuwÄs (d. 194/810), famous for his love and wine poems, who mocked the conventions of the classical ode. While AbĆ« NuwÄs portrayed the lighter side of life, his contemporary, AbĆ«âl-âAtahiyah (d. 213/828) composed religious poems expressing in simple language his pessimistic meditations on mortality.
The early critics, however, were philologians by profession, and held fast to the view that poetry of the pre-Islamic age had reached a perfection which no modern poet could hope to emulate. Those poets who desired their approval had to follow the traditions of the classical ode and its portrayal of Bedouin life. Such was their bias for the pre-Islamic poetry that to have been born after IslÄm was in itself proof of poetic inferiority. Not being of pure Arab stock or not to have learned Arabic in the pure atmosphere of the desert were charges often raised by the critics against the modern poets, many of whom had mixed ancestry.
The âAbbÄsid dynasty attained its most brilliant period of political and intellectual growth soon after its establishment. It reached its peak in the period between the reigns of the third caliph, al-MahdÄ« (158/775â169/785), and the ninth, al-WÄthiq (227/842â232/847), more particularly in the days of HÄrĆ«n ar-RashÄ«d (170/786â193/809) and his son, al-Maâ-mĆ«n (198/813â218/833). After al-WÄthiq the state began on the downward course which ended with its destruction at the hands of the Mongols in 656/1258. The period of the Golden Age, which forms the background of Diâbilâs life and work, was a time of ferment not only in literature but in every aspect of the national life.
THE POET AbĆ« âAlÄ« Muhammad b. âAlÄ« b. RazÄ«n al-KhuzÄâÄ« was born in 148/765.1 Through the meaning and origin of the nickname âDiâbilâ are unknown, the poet became famous under this name, and all of the sources refer to him by his nickname rather than his personal name.
Diâbilâs birthplace is uncertain, the two cities of KĆ«fah and QarqÄ«siyÄ being mentioned by different authorities.2 According to the KitÄb aI-AghÄnÄ«, Diâbil spent his youth in KĆ«fah, where he is said to have associated with disreputable companions and to have been guilty of robbery and even, in some versions, of murder.3 But these accounts are of questionable authenticity.4 That Diâbil in his youth engaged in some mischievous activity is quite probable, but exactly what he did is open to question. That he was not alone in such behavior is attested by similar stories regarding HammÄd ar-RÄwiyah (d. 156/772) and Diâbilâs contemporary, the poet Bakr b. an-NattÄh.5
There is no reason to doubt that Diâbil was of the tribe of KhuzÄâah, though some of his contemporaries denied it, charging that he was not of pure Arab stock.6 These statements cannot be taken seriously, since rival poets regularly indulged in such accusations. That there was a question as to which branch of the KhuzÄâah Diâbil belonged is apparent from the two genealogies listed for him.7 The more frequently cited genealogy, which gives his descent through Budail b. Warq...