The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness

Amanda Ie, Christelle T. Ngnoumen, Ellen J. Langer, Amanda Ie, Christelle T. Ngnoumen, Ellen J. Langer

• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell
• Year: 2014
• Print ISBN: 9781118294871
• eBook ISBN: 9781118294918
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Clinical Psychology
• Index: Psychology

The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Mindfulness brings together the latest multi-disciplinary research on mindfulness from a group of international scholars:

• Examines the origins and key theories of the two dominant Western approaches to mindfulness
• Compares, contrasts, and integrates insights from the social psychological and Eastern-derived perspectives
• Discusses the implications for mindfulness across a range of fields, including consciousness and cognition, education, creativity, leadership and organizational behavior, law, medical practice and therapy, well-being, and sports
• 2 Volumes

Part I

Origins and Theory

The concept of mindfulness originates from ancient Buddhist, Hindu, and Chinese philosophies. These more Eastern approaches to mindfulness are meditative in their nature and emphasize nonreactive awareness and concentration of one's self and experiences (e.g., viewing the body in and of itself; feelings in and of themselves; mind in and of itself; and mental qualities in and of themselves; Thanissaro Bhikkhu, 2007). The role of such mindfulness practices is to keep the mind properly grounded in the present moment and to decrease reactivity to what happens in the moment. It is a way of relating to all experience—positive, negative, and neutral—such that overall levels of suffering are reduced, and sense of well-being increases (Germer, Siegel, & Fulton, 2005).

Today, there are a variety of definitions of mindfulness within both Eastern and Western approaches. The Eastern approach to mindfulness has undergone several transformations following its introduction into Western culture and contemporary psychology. Basic definitions of mindfulness include “moment-by-moment awareness” (Germer et al., 2005), “keeping one's consciousness alive to the present reality” (Hanh, 1976), “attentional control” (Teasdale, Segal, & Williams, 1995), “a form of self-regulation of attention” (Hassed, 2013), “paying attention with purpose, nonjudgmentally, and while in the present moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 1994, 2005), “the bringing of one's awareness to current experiences through observing and attending to the changing field of thoughts, feelings, and sensations from moment to moment” (Bishop et al., 2004), and “complete attention to one's experience on a moment-to-moment basis” (Marlatt & Kristeller, 1999).

Western conceptions of mindfulness emerged around the 1970s. The Western camp was heavily influenced by Ellen Langer's pioneering work on mindlessness and choice (Alexander, Langer, Newman, Chandler, & Davies, 1989; Langer, 1992; Langer, Beck, Janoff-Bulman, & Timko, 1984; Langer, Blank, & Chanowitz, 1978; Langer & Moldoveanu, 2000). Langer's work originated independently of any reference to Eastern contemplative traditions. Her concept of mindfulness originates from a social psychological approach, and emphasizes actively drawing novel distinctions. Her early research focused on mindlessness and its prevalence in daily life, after which she began to explore the other side of the coin—mindfulness—and its potential benefits in areas such as aging, mental and physical health, behavioral regulation, interpersonal relationships, creativity, and the workplace.

Toward the 1980s, a unique conceptualization of mindfulness branched off the Eastern camp. This Eastern-derived approach to mindfulness integrates both psychological and meditative elements. Increasingly more empirical work examining the health outcomes of cultivating mindfulness through the practice of meditation has stemmed from this branch. Eastern-derived approaches to mindfulness were spearheaded by Jon Kabat-Zinn's work on the clinical applications of mindfulness (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, 1990, 1994; Ludwig & Kabat-Zinn, 2008). According to Kabat-Zinn (2005), mindfulness practice promotes full awareness of the present moment, with the intention of embodying an orientation of calmness and equanimity to the best of one's ability.

The role that meditation plays in the process of cultivating mindfulness differs in Langer's and Kabat-Zinn's conceptualizations of mindfulness and is perhaps a distinguishing factor for the two approaches. Langer characterizes mindfulness as a universal human capacity that need not be enhanced through the practice of meditation. Rather, mindfulness is gained by maintaining an orientation in the present, openness to novelty, alertness to distinctions, sensitivity to different contexts, and an awareness of multiple perspectives (Langer, 1990). In Langer's model, mindfulness is also enhanced through attending to the variability of one's mental and physical states.

Kabat-Zinn's conception of mindfulness is similar to Langer's in its focus on moment-to-moment awareness. The process by which mindfulness is attained, however, differs from Langer's in its emphasis on meditation. Kabat-Zinn addresses noticing new things in a manner more akin to many Eastern meditative practices. His mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program involves techniques designed to promote relaxation such as the following of one's breath, Hatha yoga, and breathing exercises to ameliorate various symptoms associated with chronic pain, stress, anxiety, depression, irritable bowl syndrome, psoriasis, eating disorders, and other chronic conditions.

Two other early contributors to the burgeoning of Eastern-derived, mindfulness-based approaches to medicine include Herbert Benson and Richard Davidson. Benson's greatest contribution is his demonstration of how meditation can ameliorate stress responses and thereby prevent the subsequent series of negative physiological reactions normally associated with stress. According to Benson (1975), the mind and body are one system, with the experiences of the latter capable of being regulated by the qualities of the former. Many Western and Eastern-derived approaches similarly subscribe to such mind–body monism. Langer's approach to improving physical and psychological health is guided by the perspective that the mind and body comprise a single system, and that every change in the human being is simultaneously a change at the level of the mind (e.g., cognitive changes) as well as the body (e.g., cellular, hormonal, neural changes).

Using modern techniques from neuroscience, Davidson demonstrated that the very qualities of the mind and its contents (e.g., happiness) can be learned, much in the same way that most skills are acquired. Some of Davidson's latest research suggests that meditation can be used to train minds into becoming happier and generally more positive (Davidson & Scherer, 2001). Langer et al. assessed the mindfulness levels of 300 people in China and discovered a positive association between mindfulness and happiness. These results are in line with Davidson's proposal and demonstrate how a mindful outlook (which can be trained and learned) could potentially contribute to increased positive qualities and experiences.

While Eastern (including Eastern-derived) and Western conceptions of mindfulness are similar in their health and quality-of-life outcomes, the processes by which these effects are obtained are qualitatively different. While the former emphasize practices rooted in meditation, the latter foster a heightened sense of awareness through maintaining an open awareness of novel information and forming new categories out of one's experience. While there surely are noticeable differences between Eastern and Western approaches to mindfulness, the degree of similarities between the two significantly outweighs their differences.

Eastern and Western conceptions of mindfulness are similar in their fundamental view of the relationship between the mind and the body as a dynamic one whereby human behavioral experiences and personal qualities can be moderated through systematic mental practice. Both camps have enriched the field, and generated greater awareness and appreciation for the wealth of benefits gained from the remarkably simple process of acknowledging novel experiences. Despite the multiple working definitions that exist for mindfulness, the element of appreciating novelty is reinforced in both Eastern and Western camps, perhaps highlighting its essentiality.

The first section of the handbook explores the historical origins of the mindfulness concept. Langer's chapter encapsulates over 35 years of her research on mindfulness. She develops the construct of mindfulness through putting it into practice across a variety of experimental and clinical settings and across a variety of populations. Her work demonstrates the powerful role of mindfulness in extending the limits of human functioning, and in improving health and promoting longevity.

Siegel and Siegel reveal the benefits associated with both contemplative and creative forms of mindfulness. More specifically, they present the positive changes associated with maintaining open awareness and learning from an open and engaged stance. They propose that “presence” is a state of mind that incorporates both contemplative and creative forms of mindfulness. Furthermore, it enables individuals to thrive amidst uncertainty.

Carmody explores the commonalities and differences between Western and Eastern (including both Eastern-derived) conceptions of mindfulness. All approaches similarly view experience as shaped by perception, particularly with regard to awareness. Additionally, they all foster improvements in well-being. While the Eastern approach focuses more on both the senses—unfiltered by any conceptual categories—and intellect, Western practices directly address cognitive realms.

Olendzki traces the progression of mindfulness from its early Buddhist origins through its integration into psychological science. According to Olendzki, mindfulness is a much-needed tool in today's externally oriented societies. Mindfulness's goal of allowing individuals to access their emotions would likely provide them with a greater understanding of their internal experiences, which are often overlooked amidst preoccupations with the material world.

Muhr and Handberg review the main theorems that underlie traditional mindfulness training (e.g., the distinctions between mind–body and subject–object). Their chapter explores the Four Mindfulness practices and their relevance to personal development and psychological health. They also discuss the similarities and differences between traditional mindfulness meditation and the mindfulness techniques applied in modern therapeutic settings.

Fatemi discusses the nature of paradigmatic shifts in the field of psychology, and elaborates upon the kinds of conditions under which such shifts are either well received or faced with hesitations. He demonstrates how Langer's (2009) work on mindfulness questions mainstream psychology's reliance on positivism and rationality and challenges the certainty of knowing. More specifically, he argues that Langer's work advocates a tilt in mainstream psychology's position of positivist knowing towards a stance of not knowing, the latter stance being one that affords the exploration of an expansive array of epistemologies and unlocks the search for predetermined knowledge fostered by the positivist position.

Djikic highlights factors that distinguish Eastern and Western conceptions of mindfulness, including a cultural divide between being and doing, respectively. This divide is apparent in more Eastern approaches' emphases on internal attitudes and ways of being as the targets of self-development, while more Western approaches focus more on action as the fuel of transformation and developmental change. Djikic further elucidates on the distinctions between Eastern and Western approaches through a discussion of how they conceptualize the nature of problems, their causes, and their solutions.

References

Alexander, C., Langer, E., Newman, R., Chandler, H., & Davies, J. (1989). Aging, mindfulness and meditation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 950–964.

Benson, H. (1975). The relaxation response. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., … & Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

Davidson, R. J., & Scherer, K. R. (2001). Editorial. Emotion, 1, 3–4.

Germer, C. K., Siegel, R. D., & Fulton, P. R. (Eds.). (2005). Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Hassed, C. (2013). Mind–body therapies: Use in chronic pain management. Australian Family Physician, 42(3), 112–117.

Hanh, T. N. (1976). The miracle of mindfulness: A manual for meditation. Boston, MA: Beacon.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1990). Full catastrophe living: Using the wisdom of your body and mind to face stress, pain, and illness. New York, NY: Dell.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York, NY: Hyperion.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (2005). Coming to our senses. New York, NY: Hyperion.

Langer, E. J. (1990). Mindfulness. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.

Langer, E. (1992). Interpersonal mindlessness and language. Communication Monographs, 59, 324–327.

Langer, E., Beck, P., Janoff-Bulman, R., & Timko, C. (1984). The relationship between cognitive deprivation and longevity in senile and non-senile elderly populations. Academic Psychology Bulletin, 6, 211–226.

Langer, E., Blank, A., & Chanowitz, B. (1978). The mindlessness of ostensibly thoughtful action: The role of “placebic” information in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 635–642.

Langer, E., & Moldoveanu, M. (Eds.). (2000). Journal of social issues: Mindfulness theory and social issues. New York, NY: Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues.

Langer, E. J. (2009). Counter clockwise: Mindful health and the power of possibility. New York, NY: Ballantine Books.

Ludwig, D. S., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2008). Mindfulness in medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300, 1350–1352.

Marlatt, G. A., & Kristeller, J. L. (1999). Mindfulness and meditation. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), Integrating spirituality in treatment (pp. 67–84). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books.

Teasdale, J. D., Segal, Z. V., & Williams, J. M. (1995). How does cognitive therapy prevent depressive relapse and why should attentional control (mindfulness) training help? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 25–39.

Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2007, June 5). Strength training for the mind. Access to Insight. Retrieved from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/strengthtraining.html

1

Mindfulness Forward and Back

Ellen J. Langer

During the 1970s, the cognitive revolution was well under way, and social psychologists were busy researching attribution theory, the dominant concern of the time (see Harvey, Ickes, & Kidd, 1978). Although I, too, was considered a social cognition researcher, I suggested that before we concern ourselves with what people were thinking, we should consider questioning whether they were thinking at all...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Notes on Editors
• Notes on Contributors
• General Introduction
• Part I: Origins and Theory
• Part II: Consciousness, Cognition, and Emotion
• Part III: Leadership and Organizational Behavior
• Title Page
• Copyright
• Notes on Editors
• Notes on Contributors
• General Introduction
• Part IV: Health, Well-Being, and Performance
• Part V: Education, Creativity, and Coaching
• Index
• Wiley end user license agreement