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Part I
Overview, Production and Postharvest Technologies
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1
Dry Beans and Pulses Production and Consumption—An Overview
Muhammad Siddiq and Mark A. Uebersax
Introduction
History and origin
Production and trade
Global production and trade
US production and trade
Consumption trends of dry beans
Dry beans and pulses as a diverse food resource
Traditional utilization
Value-added processing and products
Nutritional and health considerations
Nutritional profile
Health significance
Beans and pulses use in weaning foods
Constraints to beans and pulses utilization
Beans and pulses in world food security
Summary
References
INTRODUCTION
Legumes (dry beans and pulses) occupy an important place in human nutrition, especially among the low-income groups of people in developing countries. They are a good source of protein (significantly higher than that of cereals), dietary fiber, starch (Osorio-Diaz et al. 2003), minerals and vitamins (Kutos et al. 2002). They are a staple food and low-cost source of protein in developing countries where protein energy malnutrition (PEM) is prevalent (Van Heerden and Schonfeldt 2004). Many reports claim that inclusion of legumes in the daily diet has many beneficial physiological effects in controlling and preventing various metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease and colon cancer (Tharanathan and Mahadevamma 2003). Further, legumes belong to the group that elicits the lowest blood glucose response and contains considerable amount of phenolic compounds. The role of legumes as therapeutic agents in the diets of people suffering from metabolic disorders has gained significant interest in recent years.
Legume crops demonstrate global adaptability, genotypic and phenotypic diversity, and multiple means of preparation and dietary use (see Fig. 1.1 for a selection of common dry beans and pulses). Numerous factors influence utilization, including: bean type and cultivar selection, cropping environment and systems, storage conditions and handling infrastructure, processing, and final product preparation. Further, nutrient content and bioavailability are dramatically influenced by these conditions. Antinutritional factors (trypsin inhibitors, lectins and phytic acid) have long been recognized as concerns and require appropriate processing conditions to ameliorate adverse effects. However, it is noted that some of the antinutrients may have therapeutic value (e.g., tannins, phenolics). In recent years, beans have been cited for imparting specific positive health potentiating responses (hypocholesteremic response, mitigation of diabetes and colorectal cancer, and weight control) when properly positioned in the diet.
The general consensus of recent opinion on healthy eating habits favors an increase in the proportion of legume-based polymeric plant carbohydrates, including starch (particularly, resistant starch) in the diet. In the growing phase of urbanization in developing countries, ready-to-eat foods are beginning to play a major role in food consumption patterns, and moreover, traditional methods of preparation are generally labor and time intensive and certainly unsuitable for urban settings where time is very often a major constraint (Njintang et al. 2001).
The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is considered the most widely grown among more than 30 Phaseolus species described in the literature. It has undergone wide production distribution from its origins in Mexico, Central America, and the Andean region of South America, has extensive domestication and cultivation, and has been utilized in a variety of food preparations (Hidalgo 1988). Scientific (genus and species) and common names for various food legumes are:
- Phaseolus vulgaris L. (common bean, field bean, haricot)
- Vigna unguiculata L. (cowpea, black-eyed pea, crowder pea)
- Cicer arietinum L. (chickpea, garbanzo, Bengal gram, gram, Chana)
- Lens culinaris Medik. (lentil, Masur)
- Vigna aureus (mung bean, green gram, golden gram)
- Cajanus cajan L. Millsp. (pigeon pea, Congo pea, red gram, Angola pea, yellow dhal)
- Phaseolus lunatus L. (lima bean, butter bean)
- Vicia faba L. (broad bean, faba bean, horse bean)
- Vigna aconitifolia Jacq. (moth bean, mat bean)
- Pisum arvense sativum L. (common or garden pea, pois, arveja, Alaska pea, muttar)
- Glycine max (L.) Merr. (soybean, soya, haba soya)
Enhanced dry bean utilization focused on improved dietary health is an opportunity within subsistence and developed diets. This chapter provides an overview the important aspects of dry beans and pulses production, postharvest handling and storage, value-added processing and products, nutritional significance, and health benefits.
History and Origin
Beans may be called “the food of the ancients,” with literature recording the cultivation of beans, lupins and lentils in the Nile Valley dating as early as 2000 BC. Beans have played a part in the superstitions, the politics and the warfare of ancient peoples. Magistrates were elected in Greece and Rome by the casting of beans into helmets. Certain kinds have been credited with medicinal value (Hardenburg 1927). Various forms still serve as the principal source of protein food for the vast populations in the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.
Phaseolus beans are recognized as an exclusive New World crop of American origin despite their wide distribution worldwide. It is now generally accepted that all the species of the genus Phaseolus originated in Mexico, Guatemala, and the high Andes based on the wide genetic diversity of the cultivated and wild species that exists in the region (Evans 1976).
The early Europeans, first in the New England states of the United States, then generations later in the upper Midwest (Great Lakes region), found that the white pea bean and many other dry beans provided a fine staple for their own subsistence diet. The settlers possessed many considerable possibilities in growing dry beans that the native Indians apparently never exploited. They traded their excess production to non-bean growing neighbors for goods, services, or cash. The Iroquois Indians grew this small, round pea bean (Indian bean) with corn and squash (the “three sisters” cropping system); this bean later became known as the “navy bean” because of the large demand that developed for this bean for naval and marine food supply purposes.
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
Dry beans are grown widely in different regions of the world. The significance of dry beans and pulses is made clear by the wide distribution of their production and consumption in the diverse regions of the world, as summarized below:
- East Asia: China, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam
- South Asia: Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
- West Asia/Middle East: Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Yemen
- North America: USA, Mexico, Canada
- Central America and Caribbean: Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama
- South America: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela
- Europe: Albania, Austria, Benelux, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Russian Federation
- East Africa: Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zaire
- West Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia
- South Africa: Angola, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Republic of South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe
Global Production and Trade
The world production of dry beans was 23.2 million metric tons (MT) in 2010, which represented an increase of almost 70% as compared to that in 1980 (Fig. 1.2). From 1980 to 2000, dry production increased by 3.9 million MT; however, a significantly higher increase (5.6 million MT) was reported in only the 10-year period from 2000 to 2010. The area under dry beans cultivation increased only by 14% during the past three decades and has ranged between 23.83 million hectares (2000) and 28.83 million hectares (2007). These figures illustrate that most of the production increases during the past three decades were achieved through genetic improvements and applying good agricultural practices (GAPs) than through increases in area under cultivation. Most regions of the world have seen significant increases in production during past three decades: Africa (145%), Asia (36%), and the Americas (North, Central and South) (49%); only Europe saw a decrease of about 35% (FAO 2011).
The total world production of pulses (chickpeas, lentils, lupins, pigeon peas, vetches, and other minor pulses) in 2010 was 24.3 million MT, which was more than double than that in 1980. It is noted that while the pulses production increased by 53% in 10 years (1980–90), it has advanced at a slower rate (32%) from 1990 to 2010. The area under pulse cultivation increased by 23% from 21.5 million hectares to 26.5 million hectares; however, during the 1990–2010 period, cultivation area for pulses has not changed significantly, as exhibited by only a 5.6% increase.
The fava/cowpea world production was 10.6 million MT in 2010, which was more than three times as much as compared to 1980. While the fava/cowpea production ranged between 3.4 million MT and 5.7 million MT during 1980–90, it increased by about 86% from 1990 to 2010. The area under fava/cowpea cultivation experienced similar growth from 1.2 million hectares in 1980 to 5.6 million hectares in 2010. In contrast to dry beans, the boost in fava/cowpea world production appeared to be related mainly to the increases in the cultivated area.
India, Brazil, Myanmar, China, and the United States were the top five dry beans-producing countries, with a production of 4,870,000 MT; 3,202,150 MT; 3,029,800 MT; 1,539,500 MT; and 1,442,470 MT, respectively, in 2010 (Table 1.1); combined, these five countries contributed over 50% of the total world production.
Table 1.1. Leading dry beans and pulses producing countries in 2010 (metric tons)
Source: FAO (2011)
Nigeria and Niger were the major cowpea producers, accounting for 73% of the total world production. India ranked first among chickpea producers (with almost 70% of world share), followed by Australia and Pakistan. The cowpea production in the USA has been rather limited until recent years, with 2010 production at 65,570 MT. Lentil production is led by Canada, followed by India and Turkey; Canada’s share of total lentil production in the world was 42%. India, Ethiopia, and Australia were the leading countries producing pigeon pea, vetches, and lupins, respectively; India also led in other minor pulses production (Table 1.1).
The major dry bean exporting and importing countries are listed in Table 1.2. China was the lead exporter, followed by Myanmar and the United States whereas India was the top-most importer, followed by Mexico and the United States. Pulses and cowpeas are also traded in the world market; however, accurate data are not available since the FAO does not report such data on these commodities. It is noted that the countries that are both exporters and importers of dry beans (e.g., the United States and the United Kingdom) are frequently exporting and importing different types of beans.
Table 1.2. Leading dry beans exporting and importing countries—2009, by metric tons
Source: FAO (2011)
US Production and Trade
North Dakota and Michigan were the two leading dry bean producing states (Table 1.3); together, these two states represented about 50% of total US production with a 36.1% and 13.3% share, resp...
