Sustainable Tourism in Island Destinations

Rachel Dodds, Sonya Graci

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2012
• eBook ISBN: 9781136530531
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Betriebswirtschaft
• Subtopic: Gastgewerbe, Reise- & Tourismusbranche

Many of the world's islands are dependent on tourism as their main source of income. It is therefore imperative that these destinations are managed for long-term viability. The natural appeal of a destination is typically one of its main tourism related assets, yet the natural environment is also the feature most directly threatened by potential overexploitation.

Sustainable Tourism in Island Destinations builds on existing literature in the subject by providing innovative discussions and practical management structures through the use of the authors' various island project work. An original feature is the focus on islands which are part of larger nations, rather than just on island sovereign states. Through an illustrated case study approach, the book focuses on the successes and challenges islands face in achieving sustainable tourism. The authors put forward innovative mechanisms such as multi-stakeholder partnerships and incentive-driven non-regulatory approaches as ways that the sustainability agenda can move forward in destinations that face specific challenges due to their geography and historic development. The case studies - from Canada, St Kitts, Honduras, China, Indonesia, Spain, Tanzania and Thailand - provide the foundation which suggests that alternative approaches to tourism development are possible if they retain sustainability as a priority.

PART I

SUSTAINABILITY IN ISLAND DESTINATIONS

1

Tourism, Growth and the Need
for Sustainable Tourism

Introduction

Tourism is often identified as a promising growth sector in many islands as it offers opportunities for economic diversification and can contribute to growth in many other tourism-related activities such as agriculture, fishing and services such as transportation (UN, 1996). Currently, tourism activities in islands across the world range from over-developed to barely touched and, due to the potential for tourism growth as a contributor to the economy, the sustainability of such an industry should be considered.

Island economies are the focus of this study due to their dependence on tourism, insular geography, fragile ecosystems and complexities of planning, development and management. The characteristic complexities of island destinations give rise to a multitude of issues, especially relating to the potential success of sustainable tourism development.

In order to understand tourism in islands, it is first necessary to understand tourism, its historic growth and its impacts. This chapter will outline the growth and impacts of tourism and provide definitions for sustainable tourism as well as providing a brief history of sustainable tourism development as it relates to sustainable development.

Growth of tourism

Although some contest whether tourism should be regarded as an industry, tourism is commonly recognized as one of the world’s largest employers and providers of services and continues to expand at a rapid rate (UNWTO, 2006; WTTC, 2007). The magnitude of this industry is demonstrated by the World Tourism Organization (WTO) statistics, which indicate that, by the year 2010, international tourist arrivals will almost reach one billion tourists (Bruner et al, 1999). In 2008, worldwide tourism arrivals reached 924 million. In 2006, the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) projected that the direct and indirect impacts of tourism were expected to contribute 10.3 per cent of the global gross domestic product and create nearly 10 million new jobs for the world economy for a total of 234.3 million jobs (WTTC, 2006). The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecast study, ‘Vision 2020’, predicts a tripling in the volume of the world tourism market between 1995 and 2020 (Frangialli, 1999). According to this report, changes in the demographic structure and social patterns of the developed and newly industrialized countries mean that more people from these areas will have the time, inclination and income to travel (Frangialli, 1999). Despite the recent worldwide recession, and potential for incorrect and inflated measurements, tourism continues to grow, illustrating its global importance.

Figure 1.1 Island tourism

Tourism has a high multiplier effect and has a significant impact on other industries – a decline of one million US dollars in tourism earnings affects about two to four times that in generated earnings and affects agriculture, food processes, transportation and handicrafts (Edgell, 1999). Tourism dollars, especially for a destination dependent on tourism, will result in both the positive and negative export of services, economic development (infrastructure, transportation, agriculture) and impacts on the local economy.

In many cases, tourism development has been a profitable economic tool, making it an alluring industry and form of development for many countries and regions around the world. The benefits, however, are also often accompanied by many negative effects that result in impacts of both an environmental and a social nature (Bohdanowicz, 2005; Dodds, 2008; Lansing and DeVries, 2006; Manaktola and Jauhari, 2008; Perez-Salom, 2001; Theobald, 1998). These impacts can be severe and may consist of air, water and ground pollution, erosion, damage to coral reefs and marine life, leakage, destruction of greenfield sites, acculturation, increased crime rates and reduced access to common areas.

Figure 1.2 Is this island paradise?

The development and long-term success of the tourism industry depends on a constant availability of natural and cultural resources. The appeal of a destination is based on pristine resources, yet it is these resources that are also affected most by overexploitation and degradation (Bohdanowicz, 2005; Butler, 1993; Butler, 1998; Coccossis, 1996; Dodds, 2007a, b; Murphy, 1994). As tourism is a resource-intensive industry using a constant amount of energy and water and producing wastes, this has resulted in a significant environmental footprint (Bohdanowicz, 2005). Given tourism’s significance to global and local economies and its impact on the natural and social environment, the need to implement sustainable practices has come to the forefront of global issues (Bramwell and Lane, 1993; Butler, 1993; Dodds, 2007a, b, 2008, 2009; Graci, 2010; Hunter Jones et al, 1997; Ioannides, 1996; Kripendorf, 1982; Lansing and DeVries, 2006; Manaktola and Jauhauri, 2007; Mastny, 2002; McElroy and Albuquerque, 1998; Murphy, 1994; Pryce, 2001; Sharpley, 2000; Stipanuk, 1996; Theobald, 1998; WTTC, 2002).

Figure 1.3 Need for sustainable tourism: sharks as tourist food?

Need for sustainable tourism

Probably the main motivations for developing a tourism industry derive from its assumed potential to generate employment and economic development (Edgell, 1995; Fayos-Sola, 1996; McElroy and Dodds, 2007; Puppim de Oliviera, 2003; Wilkinson, 1997). Tourism generally produces beneficial economic results but mixed social and environmental impacts. Tourism needs to be viewed as more than just economic activity as it influences the socio-cultural and environmental aspects of most countries, let alone islands in the world. It is for this reason that sustainable tourism started to be discussed. Over 20 years ago Kripendorf (1987) wrote about tourism’s role as a potential burden on cultures, economies and the environment and that more sustainable forms of tourism need to be considered. Living standards and quality of life can be raised by income, local communities can be transformed, new employment and educational opportunities can be gained and improved international understanding can all be a result of tourism initiatives (Bramwell and Lane, 1993; Clifton and Benson, 2006; Eber, 1992; Elliot, 1997; Green and Hunter, 1992; Hall and Jenkins, 1995). The issues that call for more sustainable forms of tourism and tourism development arise from the same concerns over general sustainable development. Some of the issues and impacts affecting destinations include:

• dependency of a host community’s economy on tourism;

• competition;

• leakage;

• government debt to finance development;

• loss of habitat areas and resources due to development and pollution;

• decline in biodiversity of species and ecosystems;

• erosion;

• loss of natural and architectural heritage in the face of rapid expansion;

• decline in quantity and quality of water resources;

• sea, land, noise and air pollution;

• increased congestion and strains of infrastructure;

• rapid decline of traditional pursuits by locals because of a change in habits due to tourism;

• excessive use of natural areas;

• encroachment of buildings, facilities and roads close to coastline;

• crowding and pressure on services;

• displacement of local population;

• inflation;

• foreign customs and expectations creating conflicts.

(Agarwal, 2002; Dodds, 2008a; Filho, 1996; Graci, 2010; Harrison, 2003; May, 1991; Mbaiwa, 2005; McElroy, 2002; Milne 1993; Mycoo, 2006; Stabler and Goodall 1996; Swarbrooke 1999; UNEP 1996; United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) 1999; Wheeler 1993; Wilkinson 1989).

Tourism can also magnify issues surrounding or affecting itself such as prostitution, commercialization, inflation, begging and leakage (Butler, 1999; Cooper et al, 1998; Kirstges, 2002). Leakage can be understood as revenue generated by tourism in one country that is lost to another country’s economy. As with many developing economies, a high percentage of foreign exchange income is generated by tourist leakage out of the economy. This leakage can be in the form of repatriation of benefits to multinational corporations, fees to hotel management companies, remuneration of foreign staff and imports of goods and services (Hashimoto, 2004; Swarbrooke, 1999). The less diversified the economic structure of a destination, the higher the level of imports and leakages.

According to the UN (2003) over 40 per cent of Mediterranean coastal beaches in Europe are affected by erosion and one million hectares of wetlands in the past 50 years have been lost. Singh and Singh (1999) note that 75 per cent of total pollution that enters oceans comes from human activity on land. At peak times a ratio of ‘up to 130 tourists per inhabitant has been calculated in the most populated coastal regions’ (UNCSD, 1999: 13). The tendency historically to develop mass tourism has often been associated with serious impacts (Malvarez et al, 2003; Vera Rebollo and Ivars Baidal, 2003). This mainstream ‘sun, sea and sand’ tourism generally leads to low yield tourism with excessive use of natural resources and little benefit for the local community. Several tourism island destinations have suffered from their lack of planning or concern for the environment, which has resulted in mass tourism or unchecked development. Many islands are facing a decline in tourism due to this overdevelopment that has led to the degradation of the resources that it is ultimately trying to sell. Therefore, it is pertinent for island destinations to understand the impact that tourism can have on the environment and plan and manage tourism accordingly for a viable and sustainable future.

Figure 1.4 Sustainable tourism development in the Caribbean?

Defining sustainable tourism

Over 200 different definitions of sustainable development and sustainable tourism have been identified and many critiques note that it is an ambiguous and idealistic concept with no widely internationally accepted definition (Clarke, 1997; Collins, 1999; Johnston and Tyrell, 2005; Miller, 2002). ‘Sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable development are all well-established terms that have been used loosely and often interchangeably’ (Liu, 2003: 461). These definitions range from tourist-centric, economically focused points of view that pay little attention to natural resource demands to a more eco-centric, multi-sectoral approach that focuses on resource management as the primary factor (Hunter, 2002). These variants do not commonly identify socio-cultural aspects that are imperative to incorporate into a definition of sustainable tourism. Therefore, a definition that incorporates all aspects of sustainable development, including economic, environmental and socio-cultural aspects, in the context of tourism, is necessary. Butler’s (1993) definition of sustainable development in tourism is one definition that incorporates all three facets. Butler defines sustainable development in relation to tourism as:

Tourism which is developed and maintained in an area (community, environment) in such a manner and such a scale that it remains viable over an indefinite period and does not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits successful development and well-being of other activities and programmes. (Butler, 1993: 29)

This definition of sustainable tourism can be applied to all tourist destinations, mass or alternative, built or in the planning stages, and to all types of tourism products. It enables a practical approach to incorporating sustainability in tourism planning and development rather than a very theoretical definition that does not incorporate all tourism activities. It is through this definition that the premise of acquiring a sustainable tourism industry for the well-being of the global environment can be understood. The most recent, most comprehensive definition of sustainable tourism has been put forth by the WTO in 2005:

Sustainable tourism development guidelines and management practices are applicable to all forms of tourism in all types of destinations, including mass tourism and the various niche tourism segments. Sustainability principles refer to the environmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects of tourism development, and a suitable balance must be established between these three dimensions to guarantee its long-term sustainability… Sustainable tourism development requires the informed participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as st...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Series page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• List of Figures and Tables
• Special Preamble
• Foreword
• Authors’ Preface
• List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
• Part I Sustainability in Island Destinations
• Part II Challenges to Achieving Sustainability in Island Destinations
• Part III Successes of Achieving Sustainability in Island Destinations
• Part IV Synthesis
• References
• Appendix: Resources
• Index