Getting Started
āWhere do I begin?ā You may be asking yourself this question right now. Knowing where to start and what questions need answering about your ELLs can provide you with a great beginning point. In this chapter, we will explore how studentsā backgrounds, native languages and cultures impact learning.
There are five key questions to research about your ELLs:
1. What was his/her prior schooling like?
2. What is his/her native language (L1), and is he/she literate in that language?
Table 1.1 ELL Checklist
| Student name: Date: | |
Prior school experience(s): | |
Native language (L1): | |
L1 literacy level: | |
Structure of L1/possible language transfer issues: | |
English proficiency level/date of last assessment: | |
Cultural differences/considerations: | |
3. How is the L1 structured, and what does this mean as the student learns English?
4. What is their English level?
5. How will culture affect learning?
You can quickly capture the answers to these five questions in Table 1.1.
1. What was his/her prior schooling like? Details about a studentās prior schooling will provide you with unique insight about his/her experiences as a learner, their content exposure and what schooling was like in his/her country. You may also discover strengths, weaknesses, interests and any academic concerns that may be present. It is also important to find out what value the family places on education, and what short- and long-term educational and career goals the family and the student share. Knowing your learners will help you choose the best tools and strategies for successful teaching and learning.
2. What is his/her native language (L1), and is he/she literate in that language? This is arguably the most important information you can find out about a student. L1 testing (specifically in reading, writing and math) can provide useful information, especially if a student has registered mid-year or if appropriate grade and level placement is in question.
Students who are literate in their first language will be able to make deeper content and linguistic connections as they learn English. Think of it like having money in your bank account. The more you have, the more you can do . . . the same is true of having a strong command of your L1. A literate student understands that language is a system, with rules and exceptions to those rules. For example, a Spanish speaker knows that adjectives come directly after the noun they describe (ex: āTengo una camisa azulā literal translation into English is: āI have a shirt blueā). In this example, when the native Spanish speaker attempts to construct this sentence in English, he/she will most likely make the mistake of placing the adjective after the noun, since that is how the language is structured. If the student is literate in the L1, he/she will understand the teacherās explanation that adjectives precede nouns in the English language, as this explanation will make sense to a learner with a good language sense/understanding. An illiterate or a younger student, however, will have no point of reference, no knowledge base of parts of speech and, consequently, will have a more difficult time with concepts such as these.
3. How is the L1 structured, and what does this mean as the student learns English? A common misconception exists that in order to be an effective teacher of ELLs, you need to be able to speak your studentsā native language(s). This is not so. There is benefit, however, to knowing characteristics of the studentsā languages. Learning what sounds donāt exist in the studentās L1 compared to English, and what the word order of declarative and interrogative sentences looks like, for example, will help you anticipate difficulties students may encounter when learning English.
When a person is learning a second language, it is natural for him/her to make comparisons to the L1. The learner will compare sounds, vocabulary and grammatical structures of the new language to his/her native language. Language transfer is the process of applying knowledge from the native language to the learning of a second language. Language transfer can be positive or negative.
Positive language transfer refers to aspects of the L1 and L2 that are similar, and will be helpful when acquiring the new language. Some examples of positive language transfer include similar (or same) alphabet systems and sounds, as well as the presence of cognates (words that share a common root/origin). We will explore cognates and other special linguistic considerations in Chapter 2.
Table 1.2 Negative Language Transfer Examples: English and Russian
| English | Russian |
| Articles (a, an, the) | No articles used; Russian speakers will omit or misuse articles in English |
| Short and long vowels (sit ā seat) | Short and long vowels are not differentiated; Russian speakers have a difficult time hearing the difference, consequently affecting pronunciation |
| /w/ and th /Ę,Ć°/ sounds | Not present; difficult to produce when speaking English, these sounds often get replaced with /v/, /s/, /z/ |
| Continuous and perfect tenses (I listen. I am listening. I have listened.) | No continuous or perfect tense; only one present, one past and one future tense exists |
| Countable and uncountable nouns | Countable and uncountable nouns exist but do not coincide with English (ex: hair in Russian is countable ā I brush my hairs every morning ā this would be a negative language transfer mistake |
Negative language transfer involves aspects of the native language that are significantly different from the second language. Negative language transfer examples include English sounds not present in the studentās L1, false cognates (words that look or sound the same in different languages but do not have the same meaning) and, most importantly, grammatical structures of the English language that are significantly different from the studentās L1. Knowing which negative transfer issues exist between English and a studentās L1 will help you to plan specific language objectives you can pair with content objectives. Table 1.2 examines some of the differences between English and Russian.
When the ELL specialist and the classroom teacher look at the list above contrasting the features of the English and Russian languages, predictions can be made about possible negative language transfer issues. Instructional activities and lessons can be planned to target these particular difficulties. It is important to note, however, that not every speaker of the Russian language will experience the same difficulties and make the same language errors when learning English. For an additional example, Table 1.3 shows some contrasting features between English and Vietnamese.
Table 1.3 Negative Language Transfer Examples: English and Vietnamese
| English | Vietnamese |
| Nouns receive plural marker -s | No plural marker used āI have three sister.ā |
| Present, past, and future tenses | Verb does not change to signify past tense āI go to school yesterday.ā |
| Verb ābeā (He is hungry.) | āBeā is implied in t... |
