Working with the Human Trafficking Survivor

What Counselors, Psychologists, Social Workers and Medical Professionals Need to Know

Mary C. Burke

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2019
• Print ISBN:
  9781138924307
• eBook ISBN:
  9781317409236
• Topic: Psychology
• Subtopic: Social Work
• Index: Psychology

Working with the Human Trafficking Survivor fills a void in existing literature by providing students, faculty, and professionals in applied, helping disciplines, with a comprehensive text about human trafficking with a focus on clinical issues. This book gives an overview of the medical care, options for psychological treatment, and beyond. Working with the Human Trafficking Survivor fills is a great resource for social work, counselling, and psychology courses on human trafficking or domestic violence.

1 Human Trafficking in the 21st Century

An Overview for Healthcare Providers

Mary C. Burke

“Human trafficking” or “trafficking in persons” and “modern slavery” are terms often used interchangeably to refer to a variety of crimes associated with the economic exploitation of people. Human trafficking, regardless of its form, violates a number of basic human rights, as outlined in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (1948). While there are many articles contained within the Declaration that pertain to trafficking, the following are most relevant:

Article I

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 3

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

Article 4

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

Human trafficking occurs worldwide, and despite popular depictions in the media that primarily involve young girls, children and adults from all cultural backgrounds are trafficked. Common among trafficking survivors is their economic vulnerability, which can be caused by any number of variables (e.g., political instability, social class structure, insufficient family or other network of support). In addition to individuals being trafficked by those known to them, such as family or friends, trafficking has been associated with transnational organized crime groups, small, more loosely organized criminal networks and local gangs, violations of labor and immigration laws, and government corruption (Richard, 1999; US Government Accountability Office, 2006; Väyrynen, 2003). At the international level, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, which was adopted by UN General Assembly resolution 55/25, is the primary legal instrument used to combat transnational organized crime.¹ The Convention is supplemented by three Protocols, each of which focuses on specific types of organized crime and are: the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children; the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air; and the Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, their Parts and Components and Ammunition. Article 3 of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children defines human trafficking as follows.

Trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power, or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs.

(United Nations, 2000)

For the purpose of this text the definition above will be used.

The definition comprises three essential parts: recruitment, movement, and exploitation, all of which point to critical aspects of the trafficking process. It is important to note that it is not necessary for “movement” to include crossing from one country into another; an individual can be trafficked within the borders of her or his own country or town and can even be trafficked from the home in which she or he lives. As an example of an in-country situation, it is not uncommon for a girl or woman to be trafficked from the rural areas of Costa Rica to the coastal regions where the commercial sex industry is thriving. Another example of in-country trafficking that happens often in the United States, is for children to be sold by adults who are strangers, acquaintances or even caregivers for money in exchange for sex to a third party. Also critical to understanding human trafficking is understanding what is meant by coercion. The term “coercion” in this context specifically refers to: (a) threats of harm to or physical restraint against any person; (b) any scheme intended to cause a person to believe that failure to perform an act will result in harm or physical restraint against any person; or (c) the abuse or threatened abuse of the legal process. However, it is essential to take other factors into consideration with regard to coercion, in particular when working with victims of sex trafficking and prostitution, such as whether the individual had any legitimate alternatives to support her basic needs (Hernandez, 2001) when approached by the pimp (trafficker). If not, then the thinking is that desperation to perform responsibilities such as support a child, and feed and keep one’s self safe, can be a form of coercion.

Technically, people are trafficked into a slavery-like situation; however, that distinction is not often made in reference to these terms, meaning that the terms human trafficking and slavery are sometimes used interchangeably. This leads to an incomplete and therefore inaccurate representation of human trafficking. Coercive and sometimes forcible exploitation of one human over another has occurred in a variety of forms throughout history. The primary characteristics of this phenomenon have remained the same over time and include one person exercising fear and sometimes violence-based control over another for economic gain. What is typically different in the twenty-first century is that it is far less expensive to purchase or otherwise secure a person today than previously. For example, costs as low as US$10 have been reported in places like South East Asia, with the average cost for a person being US$90 (Free the Slaves, n.d.). A second difference is that the relationship between the trafficker and the victim is shorter in duration. This is primarily a consequence of the large number of individuals vulnerable to trafficking (i.e., available to be exploited) and the care and healthcare costs associated with a lifelong or longer-term relationship (i.e., it’s easy and less costly to find a healthy replacement). A trafficker would rather purchase another person for US$90 than invest hundreds or thousands of dollars into maintaining the health and profitability of a victim.

Forms of Human Trafficking

Categorization of trafficking by the nature of the work performed is a common although misleading practice. Categories of labor and sex trafficking are most often used; however, concerns have been raised that this separation may serve to make invisible the sexual exploitation that occurs for most women in this situation, even if they are involved in what might be described as a labor-trafficking situation. In other words, a woman may be trafficked primarily for domestic servitude; however, it is likely that she will be forced to engage in sex acts as well—this speaks to the unique vulnerabilities of women and girls. It is impossible to note all of the various types of labor performed by victims, both in sex and labor trafficking; however, typically tasks that are reimbursed at the lower end of the wage continuum are those in which trafficking survivors can be found.

The Trafficked Person

The popular stereotype of victims of human trafficking is innocent young girls who are lured or kidnapped from their home countries and forced into the commercial sex industry (Bruckert and Parent, 2002). While this is not necessarily an erroneous depiction, girls are by no means the only victims of trafficking. Women, men, and children of all ages can be trafficked for sex and labor. Those at risk of trafficking most often come from vulnerable populations including undocumented migrants, runaways, LGBT and other at-risk youth, females, members of other oppressed or marginalized groups, and the poor. Traffickers target individuals in these populations because they have few resources, and limited social support and work options. This makes them easier to recruit through deception or force and they tend to be easier to control.

At-risk youth and runaways are targeted by traffickers and by pimps for labor exploitation, begging, and very often for commercial sex (Estes and Weiner, 2002; Finkelhor and Ormrod, 2004). Pimps and sex traffickers manipulate child and adolescent victims and are known to make use of a combination of violence and affection in an effort to cultivate loyalty in the victim. The phrases “Romeo trafficker” or “Romeo pimp” are used to refer to human traffickers who rely heavily on psychological manipulation to control victims. These traffickers recruit victims by cultivating romantic feelings in the victim and making promises of security. Once these feelings are in place, the trafficker typically uses a combination of strategies to maintain control of the victim. Such psychological manipulation often includes controlling all decision making (e.g. insisting that the victim ask permission to use the bathroom or to eat) to take away the victim’s sense of agency in her environment. Other methods are more overtly violent and often include rape, physical violence, and forced drug use leading to addiction, threats to family, and more. Such strategies can result in Stockholm syndrome, a psychological phenomenon wherein hostages experience and express empathy and positive feelings for their captors. This is more likely to develop with children and adolescents than with adults, although it is a possibility with the latter as well. This psychological manipulation reduces the victim’s likelihood of acting out against the trafficker.

A combination of factors make undocumented immigrants extremely vulnerable to being trafficked (Human Rights Watch, 2012). Some of these factors include lack of legal status and related protections, poverty, few employment options, immigration-related debt, limited language skills, and social isolation. It is not uncommon for undocumented immigrants to be trafficked by those from a similar ethnic or national background, which may play into the victims trust in a way that makes her or him more easily deceived.

Regions impacted by political instability and war create an environment that fosters trafficking. In particular, long-term military occupation as well as the presence of “peace keepers” feed the commercial sex industry in these areas and facilitates the sex trafficking of women and girls (Mendelson, 2005; Morris, 2010). Another situation that promotes trafficking is that of natural disaster. Natural disasters can destroy communities in a matter of minutes and create physical and economic insecurity. Children can be separated from their caregivers, making them prime targets for traffickers. Natural disasters not only impact children, they increase adult vulnerability to trafficking as well. The kind of devastation imposed by disasters of this type can create extreme poverty and make it very difficult to meet basic needs. This, for example, may lead to immigration that can lead to victimization at the hands of a trafficker.

Globalization, the Right to Work, and Human Trafficking

Globalization has had an enormous impact on the trade in people, widening the gap between rich and poor and making it easier for traffickers to recruit and move victims. In fact, it can be said that those involved in transnational crime have benefited significantly from globalization. Current global conditions have created increased demand for cheap labor, thereby increasing migration and consequently human trafficking and smuggling (Naim, 2006). Increased supply of individuals vulnerable to exploitation is present because globalization has contributed to an increase in economic disparities between more developed and developing countries. Tourism has also grown because of globalization, which made it easier for consumers of the sex industry to travel and engage in sex tourism.

The right to work is the concept that every human has the right to work and to be fairly compensated. The term was coined by French socialist leader Louis Blanc in the early nineteenth century. The right to work is articulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations, 1948) and elaborated upon in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976) (United Nations, 1966). The right to work is also recognized in international human rights law. Article 23.1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states: “Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.”

Despite Article 23.1 in the Declaration, millions of people around the world work in inhumane conditions for little or no compensation. Corporations from countries with more developed economies intentionally produce goods in countries with fewer resources because it’s better for their bottom line. Products that are commonly used, ranging in value from goods such as coffee and chocolate to cell phones and televisions, are too often made by people who are struggling to survive. By utilizing these workers, corporations are exploiting the low cost of labor and lack of environmental and community protections that are characteristic of developing countries. Workers, including children, pay the price by toiling long hours, often in unsafe environments, for wages that barely afford the basic necessities, or in slavery conditions for no compensation at all. The result is corporations and consumers who reap the benefits of this unlawful “employment.”

The disproportionate availability of resources worldwide creates conditions of vulnerability to labor exploitation and slavery. Before addressing this issue, it is important to understand the nuances of the different terms involved. The term migration is used to describe the movement of people from one country to another. Immigration is when a person moves to a country and emigration is when a person moves from a country. The primary reasons for immigration remain consta...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Half Title
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Illustrations
• 1. Human Trafficking in the 21st Century: An Overview for Healthcare Providers
• 2. Providing Trauma-Informed Medically Based Healthcare for Survivors of Sex Trafficking
• 3. The Adult Trafficking Survivor and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
• 4. Trafficking of Children and Adolescents: Conceptualization and Evidence-Based Treatment
• 5. Psychological Treatment Reflections on a Psychoanalytic Perspective to Work with Human Trafficking
• 6. Psychological Treatment: Application of Feminist Theory
• 7. Creative Approaches for Working with Trafficking Survivors with Disabilities
• 8. Understanding Sex Trafficking through the Lens of Coercion: A Closer Look at Exploitation, Threats, and Betrayal
• 9. Relapse: Clinical Considerations
• 10. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Working with Other Professions
• 11. Comprehensive Coordination of Multi-Agency Coalitions
• Index