Strategies for Sustainable Architecture

Paola Sassi

• Publisher: Taylor & Francis
• Year: 2006
• Print ISBN: 9781138132290
• eBook ISBN: 9781134295364
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Architecture
• Subtopic: Architecture General

Filling a gap in existing literature on sustainable design, this new guide introduces and illustrates sustainable design principles through detailed case studies of sustainable buildings in Europe, North America and Australia. The guide will provide the reader with a deeper understanding of the design issues involved in delivering sustainable buildings, and giving detailed description of the process of integrating principles into practice.

Approximately one hundred case studies of sixty buildings, ranging from small dwellings to large commercial buildings, and drawn from a range of countries, demonstrate best current practice. The sections of the book are divided into design issues relating to sustainable development, including site and ecology, community and culture, health, materials, energy and water. With over 400 illustrations, this highly visual guide will be an invaluable reference to all those concerned with architecture and sustainability issues.

Chapter 1

Site and Land Use

1.0 Introduction

Land is one of the Earth’s most precious resources, not only because it provides space for human inhabitation, but because it provides many of the resources required to enable human activities and to absorb the waste from these activities. Land is also essential to support the life of plant and animal species other than humans. While some plant and animal species can live together with humans in an environment structured to suit human requirements, many cannot.

1.0.1 A sustainable site and land use

Select the development site with care

– Select sites with public transport facilities

– Select sites with existing or potential links for pedestrians and cyclists

– Select sites with low ecological value

– Select sites, the development of which would benefit the community

Use land efficiently

– Consider the needs of the community

– Create viable and attractive developments

– Consider mixed use developments

– Design to appropriately high densities

– Build on previously used and derelict land

Minimise impact of development

– Protect local natural habitats

– Enhance existing and introduce new planting

– Enhance potential for pedestrians and cyclists

– Include food production opportunities where possible

Historically, humans have had significant impact on the nature of the land and the flora and fauna supported by it. Activities such as agriculture, mining, forestry and urbanisation have changed the landscape from, for example, grassland to desert, or forest to agricultural land. Such changes can be catastrophic for the flora and fauna dependent on these habitats. Moreover, as illustrated in the previous chapter, changes to the land can compromise its ability to provide useful services that benefit humans. As human impacts on the land increase, the land suitable to support species of flora and fauna, to absorb pollution and waste, to support farming, and to provide humans with material resources and natural environments for leisure steadily decreases.

This chapter focuses on the local impacts of the handling of development sites and considers the associated global impacts. It illustrates ways to use land efficiently, ways to minimise the encroachment onto natural ecosystems, and ways to develop new and enhance existing ecosystems.

The ‘ecological footprint’

Considering the impact of buildings beyond their outline is the first step towards a sustainable architecture. The selection and use of a development site affect a number of sustainability issues, including land use, the conservation of natural ecologies, flora and fauna, and the provision of natural spaces to enhance human well-being.

Land is a limited resource used in a variety of ways: it may be built on, covered by roads, forests or other plants, it may remain barren or be used for agriculture. Land uses vary from country to country. While globally 11 per cent of the land is used for agriculture, in the US it is approximately 20 per cent, in the UK 25 per cent, in Australia 7 per cent, in Germany 35 per cent, in Austria 18 per cent and in Switzerland 11 per cent (FAO 2005). In agricultural-based economies the percentage is far higher. In India, for example, approximately 50 per cent of the land is used for agriculture. Land uses depend on the nature of the land, the economy and culture of the country and the population. In environmental terms, what counts is how much land is required to sustain life, including that of humans and of other species.

The ecological footprint is a way to address this question. This concept, developed by William Rees and Mathis Wackernagel, is a measure of the amount of land required to sustain human activities, in the long term, by providing food, water, energy and materials and by assimilating waste. The ecological footprint can be used to calculate the land requirements of a population, building or activity.

1.0.2 Human impact on biodiversity

The rate of species extinction is considered to be catastrophically high. It is estimated to be between one thousand and ten thousand times the rate before the impact of humans on the environment became significant (Wilson 2002).

This high level of extinction represents what scientists believe to be the sixth period of mass extinction in the Earth’s history. Previous extinctions, including the most recent Cretaceous extinction 65 million years ago, are thought to have been caused by cataclysmic occurrences such as the collision with an asteroid. This time the destruction is triggered by human activity (Leakey 1996).

The extinction of plants and animals as a result of human activities has a long history. Some 10,000 years before, present in America, 1,000 years ago in New Zealand and Madagascar, and similarly in Australia, the arrival of humans coincided with a steep decline and eventual extinction of large mammals and birds (Wilson 1994). These changes in the ecosystem would also have had repercussions on the survival of other species. An example of the interdependence of different species, including humans, can be seen on Easter Island. Settled by the Polynesians in 400 AD, over-harvesting of the palm trees on the island left the Polynesians without palms as a source of food or a means to build boats and hunt. Suffering from famine and war the Polynesians and the biodiversity of Easter Island failed to recover and by 1500 AD the Polynesians had died out (Bush 1997).

Today the threat to biodiversity comes from human activities involving the conversion of natural habitats into urban areas or areas for infrastructure, agriculture or mining; pollution that renders natural habitats inhospitable to native plants and animals; and directly through over-harvesting and poaching. 14 Strategies for Sustainable Architecture

For example, using this system, it was calculated that to sustain the average US lifestyle an area of 9.6 hectare is required. The typical European’s ecological footprint ranges between 3–6 hectare and that of the average Indian is 1 hectare. The ecological footprint of the total population of the US is well in excess of the country’s total land area. Even considering populations with low ecological footprints, such as that of India, the mere number of inhabitants means that the ecological footprint for that whole country is 50 per cent larger than the country’s productive land area. Today most cities and several countries have ecological footprints that are larger than the land available to them, including the UK, with an ecological footprint three times its surface area (Chambers et al. 2000; Girardet 1999a).

The global ecological footprint is affected by the nature and the quantity of human activities. If the current world population of 6 billion were to adopt a lifestyle associated with a high ecological footprint of 5 hectare per person, three more Earth-like planets would be required. Population increases are equally detrimental as they are associated with a greater quantity of human activities. Ninety per cent of population increases are expected in developing countries, but this does not mean that population increases in developed countries are insignificant. The population of the US grows by 3 million per year and that of India by 16 million per year; however, as a result of the far higher consumption rates of the US, the 3 million Americans will be responsible for an additional 15.7 million tons of CO₂ emissions, while the 16 million Indians will be responsible for only 4.9 million tons of CO₂ emissions (Worldwatch 2004).

Current thinking is that the world is living beyond its means, using resources faster than they can regenerate and producing waste in larger amounts faster than can be assimilated naturally and without danger to the environment or to humans (Meadows et al. 1992).

If the global population, projected to rise to 9 billion by the end of the century, is to share a total global landmass of 14.9 billion hectare, of which 11.5 billion hectare is vegetated (excluding ice, rock and deserts), the average available vegetated land per person would be 1.3 hectare. Of the 11.5 billion hectare of vegetated l...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Half Title page
• Copyright Page
• Title Page
• Acknowledgments
• Contents
• Introduction
• 1 Site and Land Use
• 2 Community
• 3 Health and Well-being
• 4 Materials
• 5 Energy
• 6 Water
• Postscript, Appendices & Bibliography