Release and Bioavailability of Nanoencapsulated Food Ingredients

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• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9780128156650
• eBook ISBN: 9780128156667
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Food Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Release and Bioavailability of Nanoencapsulated Food Ingredients, volume five in the Nanoencapsulation in the Food Industry series, reviews different release mechanisms of nanoencapsulated food ingredients. The book discusses mathematical and intelligent modeling of the release of bioactive agents from nano-vehicles to better understand their release mechanisms, while also covering different approaches for studying the release profile of these ingredients (such as in-vitro and in-vivo assays). Authored by a team of global experts in the fields of nano and microencapsulation of food, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical ingredients, this title will be of great value to those engaged in various fields of nanoencapsulation.- Thoroughly explores the different release mechanisms of nanoencapsulated food ingredients- Examines the release of bioactive ingredients by in vitro and in vivo systems- Discusses different approaches for modeling the release data of nanoencapsulated ingredients

Chapter One

Importance of release and bioavailability studies for nanoencapsulated food ingredients

Elham Assadpour^a; Seid Mahdi Jafari^{b a} Department of Food Science and Technology, Baharan Institute of Higher Education, Gorgan, Iran
^b Department of Food Materials and Process Design Engineering, Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran

Abstract

Different nanocarriers have been efficiently designed to provide a matrix for the delivery of food bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, essential oils, vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids to the right site at the right time. Nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, nanohydrogels, solid lipid nanoparticles, and biopolymeric nanoparticles are such nanodelivery systems that can be triggered by the environmental conditions and release the entrapped bioactives. The controlled and targeted release is the topic of research worldwide, and designing systems to have sufficient resistance to pass the gastric and reach the right place in the small intestine and colon is very important. Indeed, bioaccessibility and bioavailability are the terms that are denoted for delivery systems in which the entrapped bioactive cores should be liberated and then absorbed. In addition, modeling the release of bioactives from nanocarriers by different techniques is another important topic which is useful in predicting the release profiles and affecting factors on release. In this chapter, after a brief overview of controlled release vs. targeted release, different approaches for studying the release profile including in vitro/in vivo assays will be explained along with various release modeling techniques. Finally, the importance of bioavailability for nanoencapsulated food ingredients and their fate within gastrointestinal tract will be covered.

Keywords

Bioavailability; Release; Gastrointestinal tract; In vitro; In vivo; Release modeling

1 Introduction

Food bioactive ingredients loaded within different nanocarriers can be released at a controlled rate and particular site of action (McClements, 2014). The release can also occur in response to specific endogenous or exogenous stimuli (Wang, Shim, Levinson, Sung, & Xia, 2014). Stimuli-responsive release offers the advantage of active release profile (Ganta, Devalapally, Shahiwala, & Amiji, 2008). Such a stimulus-triggered release can create a site-selective and controlled-release pattern (Zhu et al., 2005), which leads to the increase in therapeutic efficiency of the bioactive compound, while maintaining its stability through reaching the target site (Wang et al., 2014). Release can be triggered over food manufacturing and storage (Augustin & Hemar, 2009; Ko & Gunasekaran, 2014; Yeo, Bellas, Firestone, Langer, & Kohane, 2005), or throughout the digestive tract (Malone & Appelqvist, 2003). Such a controlled release system makes an important contribution to the novel food formulation by enhancing the performance of bioactive food ingredients during processing, storage, and consumption.

The release of bioactive food ingredients can be designed to happen during food storage such as release of antimicrobial or antioxidant compounds (Fuciños et al., 2016; Li, Yin, Yang, Tang, & Wei, 2012), or within the human body (Jafari, Esfanjani, Katouzian, & Assadpour, 2017; Katouzian & Jafari, 2016; McClements, 2014). Controlling the release of bioactives within the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) can perform a significant role in addressing the issue of biological fate in delivery systems. Some factors involved in controlling the GI fate of bioactive ingredients include preventing the interaction between bioactives and taste receptors in the mouth, and either protection of bioactives from degradation within undesirable locations such as the stomach/small intestine or release of bioactives within a specific region of GIT (McClements, 2015). Thus, the knowledge of events and conditions when the encapsulated bioactives pass through the GIT can be helpful in designing the controlled release system intricately.

To understand the controlled release in food formulation and design satisfactorily, it is necessary first to identify the key concepts of the release and accordingly establish which system can be practical for a specific purpose. This chapter provides an overview of the various controlled release mechanisms and profiles, and considers their implications for designing controlled delivery systems of particular food ingredients to reach the highest bioavailability.

2 Controlled release versus targeted release

The controlled and targeted release of bioactive compounds has a pivotal impact on their bioavailability (McClements, 2014). As noted by the FDA, bioavailability is the adsorption of a bioactive compound and its following distribution via the circulatory system to reach the active site and perform its function (Jafari, Katouzian, Rajabi, & Ganje, 2017). The issues of bioavailability and bioaccessibility often concern whether the concentration at which a bioactive ingredient is present would influence the target site of action or not (Peijnenburg & Jager, 2003). In a controlled release process, a bioactive ingredient which displays a particular concentration-time profile is released to the target location (McClements, 2014). Controlled and targeted release provides insights for the heightened effectiveness of bioactive ingredients, guaranteeing optimal dosage and consequently enhancing the cost-effectiveness of the food product (Gupta & Variyar, 2016). The controlled release could also provide sustained release of food ingredients in plasma medium and consequently improve their bioavailability through oral administration (Luo, Zhang, Whent, Yu, & Wang, 2011). In contrast, an untargeted delivery system causes the undesirable release of these compounds (Jafari, Katouzian, et al., 2017).

According to a definition provided by the European Directive (3AQ19a), controlled release is the distribution of bioactive compounds at a specified time interval when a particular stimulus is encountered (Jafari, Katouzian, et al., 2017). Controlled release systems modify the rate or place at which the bioactive ingredient is released (Ko & Gunasekaran, 2014), which can be applied in the food industry to deal with inefficient use or loss of food ingredients through manufacturing and storage steps (Pothakamury & Barbosa-Cánovas, 1995). For example, the flavor of baked foods can be released during cooking and consumption, by an unwanted loss from diffusing through the food product over the storage period (Yeo & Park, 2004). Additionally, food ingredients can be released in a particular processing condition, while being prevented from being released in earlier stages (Pegg & Shahidi, 2007). Furthermore, the bioactive compounds such as flavors can be extensively released at different time intervals (Malone & Appelqvist, 2003).

Regarding the significance of controlled release procedure, it is essential to know the fundamentals of the release mechanisms, as these can be used to define the profile of delivery or release of bioactive compounds. Moreover, the release mechanisms can be applied to illustrate a process or event that governs the release rate (Jafari, Esfanjani, et al., 2017). The release of bioactive food ingredients can be site specific, stimulus specific, time specific, and rate specific (Pothakamury & Barbosa-Cánovas, 1995). A number of different release mechanisms have been introduced, and the release of bioactive compounds can be established on one or a combination of these release mechanisms, including diffusion, dissolution, erosion, swelling, osmosis, degradation, and fragmentation.

The release profile can be considered as the process of releasing a bioactive food ingredient from its matrix with a particular concentration-time profile at the target location, which is largely determined by the nature of the release mechanism. There are different types of release profiles such as burst, sustained, delayed, triggered, or targeted release. “Passive” release is the common mechanism of bioactive release from polymeric nanoparticles where the usual decomposition of particles occurs. In such cases, the bioactive release can be described as the diffusion of bioactive ingredient through the matrix. These mechanisms lead to a typical release profile for the bioactives including an initial fast release (burst effect) and subsequent constant release through time (Sabliov & Astete, 2008). Burst release is defined as the rapid release of the major part of bioactives in a short time (McClements, 2014). Generally, burst release is an inefficient form of release profile from both therapeutic and economic viewpoints (Yeo & Park, 2004), whereas a constant (sustained) release of bioactives is preferred. Nevertheless, it is favorable when rapid release of bioactive compounds enhances their function (Sabliov & Astete, 2008).

Triggered (or stimuli responsive) release is the burst release of an encapsulated food ingredient in respond to alterations in specific environmental triggers such as temperature, humidity, acidity, ionic strength, enzymes, etc. (McClements, 2014; Zhong, Chen, Zhang, Pan, & Wang, 2015). Triggers could be biological and chemical reactions or variations in physical features that can be considered as indicators of inadequate heating or storage conditions (Zhong et al., 2015). For instance, the release of antimicrobial volatile compounds from β-cyclodextrins carriers in response to high relative humidity in the atmosphere can be used for active packaging systems (Leimann, Gonçalves, Machado, & Bolzan, 2009).

Targeted release is considered as the release of food ingredients in a specific site of action in the human body (Jafari, Katouzian, et al., 2017). In targeted release applications, it is possible to use the particle capability in order to adhere onto a particular biological surface within the GIT to increase the delivery efficiency of bioactives (McClements, 2014). For example, unstable emulsion droplets (which are covered with low...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Contributors
• Preface to Vol. 5
• Chapter One: Importance of release and bioavailability studies for nanoencapsulated food ingredients
• Section A: Mechanisms of bioactive release from nanoencapsulated food systems
• Section B: Different approaches for studying the release profile of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
• Section C: Modeling of release data from nanoencapsulated food ingredients
• Section D: Bioavailability of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
• Index