Saffron

Science, Technology and Health

Alireza Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini

• Publisher: Woodhead Publishing
• Year: 2020
• Print ISBN: 9780128186381
• eBook ISBN: 9780128187401
• Topic: Tecnologia e ingegneria
• Subtopic: Scienze dell'alimentazione

Saffron: Science, Technology and Health summarizes the scientific, technical and health aspects of this crop. Saffron possesses unique agronomical, ecological, social and physiological characteristics. And, there are various chemical components present in saffron, including carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, color pigment, aromatic and flavoring agents. Saffron has a long history of use in traditional medicine, and in recent years, the application of saffron in the medical industry as a cancer curing and antidepressant agent has brought more attention. There is also a growing trend of saffron use in the conventional food industry, including saffron desserts, cream, butter, beverages, powders, cake mixes and soups.Intended for nutrition scientists and scientists and technologists working in the areas of food, agriculture, new product development and pharmacology.- Summarizes the scientific, technical and health aspects of saffron- Explores the use of saffron in the conventional food industry in the development of new products- Uncovers the unique agronomical, ecological, social and physiological characteristics of saffron

Section II

Safron production

Outline

• Chapter 4 Evolution and botany of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and allied species
• Chapter 5 Soil conditions for sustainable saffron production
• Chapter 6 Saffron water requirements
• Chapter 7 Saffron “seed”, the corm
• Chapter 8 Ecophysiology of saffron
• Chapter 9 Advances in modeling saffron growth and development at different scales
• Chapter 10 Saffron crop protection
• Chapter 11 Mechanization of saffron production
• Chapter 12 Emerging innovation in saffron production

Chapter 4

Evolution and botany of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and allied species

Mohammad-Hassan Rashed-Mohassel, Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran

Abstract

Domestication of saffron (Crocus sativus L.), an exceptional triploid plant, occurred between 300 and 1600 BCE and was possibly first harvested as a mutant of Crocus cartrightianus. To gain a thorough understanding of Crocus and its position in plant kingdom, this chapter will briefly introduce the Iridaceae family to which the genus Crocus belongs, followed by an explanation of the species of Crocus. The habitats of Crocus species, the act of contractile root, and the types of corms and tunica will also be described. The evolution of saffron is a matter of ambiguity; however, different aspects of the evolution and phylogeny of saffron will be explored. To increase our knowledge of saffron, its botany as well as the botany of similar species will be explained, and the probable progenitor of saffron will be introduced and discussed.

Keywords

Contractile root; corm types; Crocus sativus; saffron; saffron ancestors; saffron botany; saffron life cycle; saffron phylogeny

Chapter Outline

Outline

• 4.1 Introduction 37
• 4.2 Crocus 38
• 4.3 Contractile roots 40
• 4.4 Corm 41
• 4.5 Iridaceae 41
• 4.6 Saffron evolution and phylogeny 43
• 4.7 Pollination and seed growth 46
• 4.8 Sexual reproduction 46
• 4.9 Cultivated saffron (Crocus sativus L.) 47
• 4.10 Wild saffron (C. cartwrightianus Herbert) 51
• 4.11 Crocus palasii subsp. Haussknechtii 52
• 4.12 Crocus oreocreticus Burtt 53
• 4.13 Crocus Thomasii Tenore 54
• 4.14 Crocus hadriaticus 54
• 4.15 Conclusion 55
• Acknowledgment 56
• References 56
• Further reading 57

4.1 Introduction

Saffron spice refers to the desiccated stigma of Crocus sativus L and is the most expensive spice in the world. It is named “Red gold” and appreciated because of its color, flavor, and aroma (Lopez-Corcoles et al., 2015). Saffron is a triploid plant, propagated by corm (Fiore et al., 2010). The beauties of this small geophyte have resulted in generations of children’s stories, which generally include few facts. Based on the Julius brands documentation, the coplayer of Otared or Hermes was a young slave. When the slave’s blood was shed on the plain, saffron emerged. Abu-Raihan (an ancient Iranian scholar), without naming the slave, says Jalinnus had a slave that was killed and whose blood incorporated with the soil, and thus the saffron plant emerged. Zaryabkhouei (Abrishami, 2004) said the name of that young fellow playing with Hermes was Krocus, the Greek word for saffron. Pierre Grimily states Krocus was a young fellow who fell in love with similax. Assuming the aforementioned slave was Karkom, Karkimas, or Karkomiseein, in Persian dialogue it would be zaffran and in Greek, Krocus. It is probable that a story from Shahnameh Ferdowsi was delivered to Greece. In this story Siavash, the son of Kaykavous the king of Iran, was in love with Farangis, the daughter of Afrasiab the king of Tourane. Siavash was unfairly killed by Garsivaz, and where his blood poured out, Khoon-e-Siavash (the blood of Siavash), a plant grew (Abrishami, 2004). This story may have spread to Greece and developed differently (Abrishami, 2004). A Greek story says saffron was so beautiful that Zeus slept on a bed of saffron (Grilli Caiola, 2010). Alexander the great and his army during his campaign in Kashmir stopped in a plain. The next morning he saw violet flowers under the hooves of horses, presumably they were saffron (Aucante, 2000).

Exploring several carvings from Sumeria indicates that these clever people traveled from Iran to Mesopotamia about 6000 years ago and established the first saffron farms about 3500 years ago. They wrote 108 lines on a historical tablet regarding the methodology of seedbed preparation and cultivation the crop (Abrishami, 2004; Deo, 2003).

Based on some traditional stories during the late Achamenid age (an Iranian dynasty), the agricultural and medicinal documents after being translated to Greek, were destroyed by Alexander.

A saffron-based pigment was found in a 50,000-year-old depiction of prehistoric northwestern Iran (Wikipedia, 2019b). A printing from Knossos, Crete (1700 BCE) indicated that the ancient Greek farmers probably worked toward domestication of saffron between 3000 and 1600 BCE (Deo, 2003). It is one of the most historical and traditional crops in that its cultivation is based on traditional knowledge and has had little contribution from modern technology (Fig. 4.1). It is a crop with minimum water needs, and under severe restrictions and conditions it provides remarkable income for farmers.

Figure 4.1 “Young Saffron-Gatherer,” detail from the “Saffron-Gatherers,” wall painting from Thera, Greece, 1650 BCE [after Christos Doumas, the wall paintings of Thera (Athens: Thera Foundation, 1992)]. From Wikipedia, 2019b. Saffron. Available from: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/saffron>.

Time has been devoted by scientists since ancient times to outline the process of saffron domestication (Theophrastus 371–287 BCE, Pliny CE 23–79, Dioscorides CE 1st century) (Deo, 2003; Negbi, 1999). From the Middle Ages to the industrial revolution, saffron constantly increased in commercial value. Due to high medicinal value and antioxidant ability, it is widely used in human diets (Abrishami, 2004; Grilli Caiola, 2010). In physiological, ecological, and cultural practice aspects, it has considerable differences with other crops. Its flower usually appears before other organs, the onset of flowering corresponds with cold weather of fall, and only a small portion of it flowe...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• List of contributors
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Section I: Cultural and historical aspects of saffron
• Section II: Safron production
• Section III: Genetics and biotechnology of saffron
• Section IV: Saffron processing
• Section V: Economy and trade of saffron
• Section VI: Saffron and Health
• Index