Food Science and the Culinary Arts

Mark Gibson

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2018
• Print ISBN: 9780128118160
• eBook ISBN: 9780128118177
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Food Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Food Science and the Culinary Arts is a unique reference that incorporates the principles of food and beverage science with practical applications in food preparation and product development. The first part of the book covers the various elements of the chemical processes that occur in the development of food products. It includes exploration of sensory elements, chemistry, and the transfer of energy and heat within the kitchen. The second part looks in detail at the makeup of specific foodstuffs from a scientific perspective, with chapters on meat, fish, vegetables, sugars, chocolate, coffee, and wine and spirits, among others. It provides a complete overview of the food science relevant to culinary students and professionals training to work in the food industry. - Provides foundational food science information to culinary students and specialists - Integrates principles of food science into practical applications - Spans food chemistry to ingredients, whole foods, and baked and mixed foods - Includes a comprehensive glossary of terms in food science

Part 1

Science Knowledge and Discipline

Chapter 1

Food Groups

Abstract

Many people might be surprised to learn that much of the food we eat is still alive, whether raw oysters, uncooked fruit and vegetables, fresh seeds, nuts and herbs, and fermented and bacterially enhanced foods like yogurts, cheeses, sauerkraut, miso, and tempeh. As a result, this chapter takes a look at the various foods and the nutritional components that make up our food requirements, not only at macronutrient levels but also at the micronutrient level too. This is summarized in six categories: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, water, vitamins and minerals. The chapter also delves into the various metabolic processes whereby food is metabolized by the body for use in its many forms. A quick look at the body's energy preferences and the chapter concludes with recommended energy balance portfolios.

Keywords

Macronutrients; Carbohydrates; Proteins; Fats; Vitamins; Minerals; Metabolism; Energy portfolio

Chapter Outline

• 1.1 Macronutrients
  • 1.1.1 Carbohydrates
  • 1.1.2 Proteins
  • 1.1.3 Fats
• 1.2 Water
• 1.3 Micronutrients
  • 1.3.1 Vitamins
  • 1.3.2 Minerals
  • 1.3.3 A Good Balanced Energy Portfolio
• 1.4 Metabolism
• 1.5 Energy Preferences
  • 1.5.1 Carbohydrate Metabolism
  • 1.5.2 Lipid (Fat) Metabolism
  • 1.5.3 Protein Metabolism
• References
• Further Reading

Many might be surprised to learn that much of the food we eat is still alive, whether raw oysters, uncooked fruit and vegetables, fresh seeds, nuts and herbs, and fermented and bacterially enhanced foods like yogurts, cheeses, sauerkraut, miso, and tempeh. They are alive in the sense that they contain cells that are still living (Field, 2011). The human body then, benefits from both raw and cooked foods. It must also be remembered that of the many foods we eat, we are never eating just one group, say vitamins (unless one is taking supplements), for example. Instead, an apple might contain several groups of foods including vitamins, minerals, fibers, and carbohydrates perhaps. It should be noted too that while certain food groups are ingested every day (some nutrients are required on a regular basis) not every food groups (in particular the micronutrients) are required on a daily basis, as certain of these can be stored in the body (Belitz et al., 2009). It is similarly noteworthy that some of these nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body and must be ingested through the food we eat.

Before we get into the mix so to speak, it is perhaps worth taking a quick look at the various nutritional components that make up our food requirements. The term “food” applies to a variety of organic materials and can be categorized in a number of ways. Foods can be grouped by whether or not they provide energy (calorific value) for the body or not or more descriptively by such terms as fish, meat, dairy, fruit, and vegetables. In this book, we categorize foods according to the body's needs. As such, our first foray into the vast area of food shall take the form of a quick look, not only at the nutritional profile of macronutrient food groups but also those of the loosely termed “minor” (although no less important) micronutrient food groups too. These are summarized in six categories: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, water (which comprise 99% of the dry weight of the food we eat), and vitamins and minerals (collectively making up the remaining 1%).

1.1 Macronutrients

Macronutrients are the nutrients needed in greater quantities than those of micronutrients; these are the proteins, lipids (fats), carbohydrates, and water, which, with the exception of water, provide energy to the body at the following rates. Proteins provide around 4 Cal/g, lipids (fats) roughly 9 Cal/g, and carbohydrates supply approximately 4 Cal/g. As for water, there are no calories for energy; however, as will be seen later, it becomes clear that water is a vital and necessary component of the macronutrients (Table 1.1 and Section 1.2) (EUFIC, 2009; Wilson, 2008; WHO, 1997, 2006).

Table 1.1

Body Composition of an Average Lean Man (65–70 kg) Percent by Weight

	Gibney	FAO	Rowett Institute	Average Percent
Water	60 (26%^a, 34%^b)	61.6	60	60.4
Proteins	19.1	17	17	17.7
Fats	14.4	13.8	17	15.1
Carbohydrate	0.6	1.5		1.1
Minerals	5.3	6.1		5.7
Remaining			6%—including carbs

Source: Compiled from multiple sources: Latham, M.C., 1997. Human Nutrition in the Developing World. Food and Nutrition Series—No. 29. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome; Gibney, M.J., et al., 2009. Introduction to Human Nutrition. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford; Eduweb, 2010. Fact Sheets: Body Composition. Retrieved 15 Oct 2017 from http://www.rowett.ac.uk/edu_web/; EUFIC, 1998. The European Food Information Centre: What Do We Mean by Nutrition?. Retrieved 11 November 2016, from http://www.eufic.org/article/en/health-and-lifestyle/healthy-eating/artid/nutrition-2/; Gibson, M., 2012. The Feeding of Nations: Re-defining Food Security for the 21st Century. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

^a Extracellular water.

^b Intracellular water.

1.1.1 Carbohydrates

The basic building blocks of carbohydrates are the amalgamation of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are also ketones, alcohols, polyhydroxy aldehydes, and acids and their derivatives. In more lay terms, carbohydrates are one of the main macronutrients within our diets; they, along with fats and proteins, supply valuable energy for the body to function. Although in terms of ranking and as will be discussed later, carbohydrates are the most important of the energy providers (Eliasson, 2016). This is partly because our digestive system readily metabolizes carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar) that in turn is used as energy for cells, tissues, and organs. Carbohydrate sugars can also be assembled according to their structural complexity, that is, three principal groups: the monosaccharides including glucose, fructose, and galactose; the disaccharides comprising two sugar units known as sucrose and lactose; and the polysaccharides that cover the starches, cellulose (fibers), and hemicellulose (Lee et al., 2014; Cummings and Stephen, 2007).

Food, because of its heterogeneity, means that carbohydrates are not consumed in isolation. Instead, they are found in a variety of foods that also bring an assortment of other nutrients to the diet; these include vitamins and minerals, dietary fiber, antioxidants, and phytochemicals. These are found in varying amounts in fruits, vegetables, grain-based foods, and several dairy products.

1.1.1.1 Monosaccharides—Simple sugars

Monosaccharides are the simplest units of carbohydrates and the simplest forms of sugar there is. The main monosaccharides are the hexoses (simple sugars in which the molecules contain six carbon atoms)—these include glucose (known also as dextrose), fructose¹ (commonly called levulose), galactose, and mannose (Eliasson, 2016). All of which are naturally found in fruit juices. These simple sugar forms are typically colorless and crystalline water-soluble solids. Monosaccharides have a sweet taste, the best examples being fructose and galactose and to a lesser degree, glucose. Glucose, however, is without doubt the most common of the monosaccharides and is also incidentally, industrially manufactured on a large scale through the hydrolysis² of cornstarch. Being less sweet though, glucose is often used instead of “table” sugar (the common name for the disaccharide—sucrose) in cooking, especially in the pastry kitchen. Moreover, glucose can also be prepared in relatively pure form through hydrolysis of both disaccharides and polysaccharides. Importantly, the simple monosaccharide glucose is also the easiest sugar for the body to break down and metabolize. In fact, it is only in its simplest form, that is, glucose, that sugar can be absorbed into the blood and in a relatively short space of time too (Lee et al., 2014). This is why eating sugary foods and soft drinks very quickly causes spikes in the glucose levels of the blood, sometimes referred to as a “sugar rush.” Although useful in moderation, if sugar intake is continually excessive, then in the long run this can lead to heart and vascular diseases (Cummings and Stephen, 2007; Eliasson, 2016). Fructose, another simple sugar, is also found naturally in fruits, and if cane or sugar beet is hydrolyzed, one molecule of each, fructose and glucose, is created from each molecule of sucrose (see Sections 6.5 and 10.1.7.1) (Lee et al., 2014). It is also worth noting that while hydrolysis of di- or polysaccharides produces monosaccharide, monosaccharides in turn cannot be further hydrolyzed to make simpler compounds. Instead, monosaccharides in turn become the building blocks of disaccharides like sucrose (table sugar) and lactose. Sugars are used as sweeteners to improve the palatability and preservation of many foods. They are also responsible for certain functional characteristics in foods like viscosity, texture, body, and browning or caramelization properties. Sugars also increase dough yield, influence starch and protein breakdown, and control moisture, consequently preventing the drying out of certain foods (Cummings and Stephen, 2007).

1.1.1.2 Disaccharides—Sugars

When it comes to disaccharides like sucrose, maltose, and lactose, they may be thought of as comprising two simple sugar molecules that come together to make one larger molecule. Sucrose is the common sugar in the cook's kitchen and at home. It is made largely from sugarcane and sugar beets. The hydrolysis of sucrose results in the formation of glucose and fructose. Another mono...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Part 1: Science Knowledge and Discipline
• Part 2: Food and Science
• Appendix A: Dietary Guidelines
• Appendix B: Basic Organic Chemistry
• Appendix C: Essential Oils
• Appendix D: A Note About Units of Measurement
• Appendix E: Common Food pH Values
• Glossary
• Index