Sampling and Analysis of Environmental Chemical Pollutants

A Complete Guide

E. P. Popek

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9780128032022
• eBook ISBN: 9780128032039
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Physical Sciences
• Subtopic: Analytic Chemistry

Sampling and Analysis of Environmental Chemical Pollutants, A Complete Guide, Second Edition promotes the knowledge of data collection fundamentals and offers technically solid procedures and basic techniques that can be applied to daily workflow solutions. The book's organization emphasizes the practical issues facing the project scientist. In focusing the book on data collection techniques that are oriented toward the project objectives, the author clearly distinguishes the important issues from the less relevant ones. Stripping away the layers of inapplicable or irrelevant recommendations, the book centers on the underlying principles of environmental sampling and analytical chemistry and summarizes the universally accepted industry practices and standards.This Guide is a resource that will help students and practicing professionals alike better understand the issues of environmental data collection, capitalize on years of existing sampling and analysis practices, and become more knowledgeable and efficient in the task at hand.- The three phases of environmental chemical data collection (planning, implementation, and assessment) are explained in a logical and concise manner.- A discussion on the physical and chemical properties of environmental chemical pollutants promotes the understanding of their fate and transport.- A chapter on common analytical chemistry techniques, methods of compound quantitation, and laboratory quality control and quality assurance may be used as a standalone introduction to instrumental analytical chemistry.- Eleven case studies demonstrate the application of the Data Quality Objectives process to the development of sampling designs and illustrate specific data interpretation problems.- Numerous call-out boxes in each chapter offer practical tips on widely used industry practices, which originate from years of experience in the field.- Appendices contain the most frequently used action levels and reference material, calculation aides, and useful field forms and checklists.- Authored by an analytical chemist and environmental pollutant expert with more than 30 years of experience in research and industry.

Chapter 1

The Sample and the Error

Abstract

This chapter introduces the concepts of valid, relevant, and usable data, the total error, and the three phases of data collection (planning, implementation, and assessment). Components of total error are discussed in terms of data quality indicators and their acceptance criteria. It explains how this Guide divides the data collection phases into distinctive tasks, dissects the tasks into manageable steps, and provides instructions and practical advice on their execution, all aimed on the reduction of the total error.

Keywords

Planning; implementation; assessment; data quality objectives; stepwise approach; total error; data quality indicators and acceptance criteria

1.1 The Concept of Relevant and Valid Data

One of the main concerns of any environmental project is the collection of relevant and valid data. These are the data of the type, quantity, and quality that are appropriate and sufficient for the project decisions. The standards for data relevancy and validity stem from the intended use of the data since different uses require different type, quantity, and quality of data. For example, data requirements for a risk assessment project would be different from those of a waste disposal project; the requirements for site investigation data would be different from these for site closure.

Data relevancy and validity are unrelated concepts, a fact that is not always recognized by all project participants. Data can be perfectly valid and yet irrelevant for their intended use. Conversely, the quality of data may be flawed in some way, as is usually the case in the real world, and nevertheless, they can be used for project decisions.

How do the project participants assure that the collected data are of the correct type, quantity, and quality, or in other words are relevant and valid? To address different aspects of data collection, the process can be divided into three distinctive phases: planning, implementation, and assessment [1]. These phases contain a total of seven unique data collection tasks, all designed to assure the relevancy and validity of the data:

Task 1—Data quality objectives (DQOs) development

Task 2—Sampling and analysis plan (SAP) preparation

Task 3—Sampling and field data collection

Task 4—Field quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC)

Task 5—Laboratory analysis

Task 6—Data evaluation

Task 7—Data quality assessment (DQA).

If all seven tasks are conducted properly, the collected data will be not only valid and relevant to the project objectives, but they will also be robust and solid, like the most durable structures on Earth, the pyramids. That is why the data collection process is best depicted as a pyramid, constructed of three ascending layers, representing the three phases of the data collection process, planning, implementation, and assessment, as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Three phases of environmental chemical data collection process.

Each of the three phases contains several major tasks that are conducted consecutively. The data collection pyramid is built from the bottom up through carrying out these seven tasks. Take one pyramid layer or one task out, and the whole structure becomes incomplete and prone to collapse.

1.1.1 Planning

The foundation for the collection of relevant and valid data is laid out in the planning phase through the completion of Task 1—DQOs development and Task 2—SAP preparation. The DQO process enables the project participants to come to the understanding of the intended data uses and to identify the necessary types, quantity, and quality of data for each separate use. In other words, the requirements for the collection of relevant and valid data are defined through the DQO process early in the planning phase of the data collection. The project DQOs, the sampling design, and the type, quantity, and quality of data are stated in the SAP together with the requirements for field and laboratory QA/QC and data evaluation procedures necessary to achieve these objectives. The SAP requirements define the course of the implementation and assessment phases of the data collection process.

1.1.2 Implementation

The implementation phase of the data collection process takes place in the field and at the laboratory where the SAP provisions are implemented. This phase consists of Task 3—Sampling and field data collection, Task 4—Field QA/QC, and Task 5—Laboratory analysis. In theory, if all sampling, analysis, and QA/QC tasks of this phase are conducted to the requirements of the SAP, the collected data will be relevant and valid. In reality, most projects have variances from the requirements specified in the SAP, hence a need for the next phase of data collection, i.e., assessment.

1.1.3 Assessment

The assessment phase offers us the tools to verify that the data are truly relevant and valid. The assessment phase includes Task 6—Data evaluation and Task 7—DQA. Data validity is established through the application of data evaluation procedures; their relevancy for making project decisions is determined in the course of the DQA process.

Like building the pyramids, the three-phase collection process of relevant and valid data is a daunting undertaking that can be best achieved by placing one stone at a time through a stepwise approach to each task.

1.2 Importance of a Stepwise Approach

A stepwise approach to the planning phase (Fig. 1.2) based on the DQO process for determining the type, quality, and quantity of data that would be sufficient for valid decision making has been a proven and useful method in any environmental project work [1]. Each step of the DQO process addresses a specific facet of the future data collection design. The DQO process enables us to define the intended use of the data; the data quality appropriate for the intended use; the sampling rationale and strategy; and many other important aspects of data collection.

Figure 1.2 The seven steps of the DQOs process.

The seven steps of the DQO process detailed in Chapter 3, Bird’s Eye View of Project Planning mold our reasoning into a logical and informed approach by turning project planning into a structured and consistent process. Chapter 3 describes the seven steps of the DQO process and, using examples, explains how to apply them for planning of environmental data collection. Once understood, the DQO process can be used not only for environmental project planning, but also for any planning that we may face in everyday life. It is nothing more than a common-sense planning instrument that promotes gathering of information needed for educated decision making, logical thinking in decision making, and evaluation of risks associated with every decision.

The concept of a seven-step process is the underlying theme of this Guide. Any task, insurmountable as it may seem at a first glance, becomes feasible once broken into small, consecutive, and achievable steps. Each step has its own objectives that we can meet without difficulty if we rely on clear and well-written instructions to guide us through each detail of the step. The Guide divides the data collection phases into distinctive tasks as shown in Fig. 1.1, dissects the tasks into manageable steps, and provides instructions and practical advice on their execution.

1.3 Seven Steps of the Sample’s Life

Environmental projects revolve around environmental data collection, such as analytical chemistry data for environmental chemical pollutants. Chemical data enable us to conclude, whether hazardous conditions exist at a site and whether such conditions create a risk to human health and the environment. We gather environmental chemical data by collecting samples of soil, water, and other environmental media at the right time and at the right place and by analyzing them for chemical pollutants. In other words, in the core of every environmental project lies an environmental sample.

Like a living organism, an environmental sample has a finite life span and is as sensitive as living matter. It contains chemicals that undergo changes when exposed to light, air, or to variations in temperature and pressure, it houses live bacterial colonies, and contains bubbling gases or radionuclides. Physical and chemical processes constantly take place in the sample, and in this chapter we shall respectfully call it “the Sample,” for it lives and dies like a living organism.

The life of the Sample consists of seven consecutive periods or steps illustrated by a diagram in Fig. 1.3. These steps are irreversible, and mistakes made by the Sample’s handlers at any of them may prove fatal for the Sample’s life.

Figure 1.3 The seven steps of the Sample’s life.

Once conceived during the planning phase of the project (Step 1), the Sample ges...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• Dedication
• Acknowledgments
• Acronyms and Abbreviations
• Introduction to the Second Edition
• Chapter 1. The Sample and the Error
• Chapter 2. Environmental Chemical Pollutants
• Chapter 3. Bird’s Eye View of Project Planning
• Chapter 4. Practical Approach to Sampling
• Chapter 5. Understanding the Analytical Laboratory
• Chapter 6. Data Quality Assessment
• Appendix 1. Priority Toxic Pollutants and Priority Substances
• Appendix 2. Maximum Concentrations of Contaminants for the Toxicity Characteristics
• Appendix 3. List of California Toxic Substances, Their Soluble Threshold Limit Concentrations, and Total Threshold Limit Concentrations
• Appendix 4. PCB Cleanup Levels for Various Matrices
• Appendix 5. Definitions of Basic Statistical Terms
• Appendix 6. Example of a Sampling and Analysis Plan Table of Contents
• Appendix 7. Example of Field Sampling Supplies and Equipment Checklist for Soil Sampling
• Appendix 8. Example of a Chain-of-Custody Form
• Appendix 9. Examples of a Custody Seal and a Sample Label
• Appendix 10. Example of a Sample Tracking Log
• Appendix 11. Analytical Method References, Containers, Preservation, and Holding Time for Soil Samples
• Appendix 12. Analytical Method Requirements, Sample Containers, Preservation, and Holding Time for Water Samples
• Appendix 13. Stockpile Statistics Worksheet
• Appendix 14. Example of a Sample Container Tracking Log
• Appendix 15. Example of a Groundwater Sampling Form
• Appendix 16. Example of a Monitoring Well Sampling Sheet (Micropurge)
• Appendix 17. Example of a Laboratory Cooler Receipt Form
• Appendix 18. Gas Chromatography/High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Analysis Data Package Content
• Appendix 19. Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Analysis Data Package Content
• Appendix 20. Trace Element Analysis Data Package Content
• Appendix 21. Inorganic Compound Analysis Data Package Content
• Appendix 22. Calculations Used for Compound Quantitation
• Appendix 23. Data Evaluation Checklist—Organic Compound Analysis
• Appendix 24. Data Evaluation Checklist—Trace Element Analysis
• Appendix 25. Data Evaluation Checklist—Inorganic Compound Analysis
• References
• Index