Poultry Meat Processing and Quality

G Mead

• Publisher: Woodhead Publishing
• Year: 2004
• Print ISBN: 9781855737273
• eBook ISBN: 9781855739031
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Food Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

Poultry products are universally popular and in recent years the consumption of poultry meat has risen dramatically. To ensure the continued growth and competitiveness of this industry, it is essential that poultry meat quality and safety are maintained during production and processing. This important collection provides an authoritative review of the key issues affecting poultry meat quality in production and processing.The book begins by establishing consumer requirements for meat quality, before examining the influence of breeding and husbandry, and techniques for stunning and slaughter of poultry. Chapters 5 and 6 look at primary and secondary processing and Chapters 7, 8 and 9 discuss packaging, refrigeration and other preservation techniques. There are also chapters on microbial hazards and chemical residues in poultry. Quality management issues are reviewed in the final group of chapters, including shelf-life and spoilage, measuring quality parameters and ways of maintaining safety and maximising quality.Poultry meat processing and quality is an essential reference book for technical managers in the Poultry Industry and anyone engaged in teaching or research on poultry meat production. - An essential reference for the entire poultry meat industry - Reviews the key issues affecting poultry meat quality in production and processing - Extensive analysis of poultry meat safety issues

1

Meat quality and consumer requirements

G.C. Mead formerly Royal Veterinary College, UK

1.1 Introduction

Throughout the world, consumption of poultry meat continues to rise in both developed and developing countries. In 1999, global production of broiler chickens reached 40 billion for the first time and, by 2020, poultry is predicted to become the overall meat of choice (Bilgili, 2002). The continued growth and competitive nature of the industry have been attributed to a variety of factors, some of which relate to economies of scale in intensive production and processing, and extensive use of mechanisation, while others include the more recent development of a wide range of convenience and ready-to-eat products that meet both direct consumer demand and the rapid expansion of fast-food outlets. Poultry products are universally popular, because they are not subject to cultural or religious constraints and the meat itself is perceived as wholesome, healthy and nutritious, being relatively low in fat and with a more desirable unsaturated fatty-acid content than other meats. Most importantly, high-quality poultry products are available to many people at affordable prices, although production costs vary widely around the world (van Horne, 2002), and are likely to increase as new legislation appears and retailers and consumers become more demanding in their requirements. However, the technical and marketing sophistication of the industry in the developed world contrasts sharply with the situation elsewhere. In poorer regions, poultry are often sold live or are slaughtered at the point of sale, and 30% of all the world’s poultry are said to be marketed in this way (Holroyd, 2001). Processing in developing countries tends to be more labour intensive and is often confined to the production of relatively simple items, such as whole carcasses and cut portions. Nevertheless, poultry production and consumption are increasingly significant in those countries, especially where there are high population densities and sustained economic growth (Bilgili, 2002).

More recently, consumer demands in Europe and elsewhere have been influenced by a number of socio-economic factors and the industry has needed to respond to a rapidly changing market. In the UK, in particular, there is an ageing population in which life expectancy is still increasing. Many households consist of only one or two individuals and many women are now engaged in fulltime employment. Taking meals outside the home, whether in the form of snacks, take-away meals or eating in catering establishments, has become much more widespread. Also, people are travelling more for pleasure and thereby experiencing a wider range of foods than ever before. In parallel with these changes in lifestyle, there has been a significant uptake of labour-saving devices in the home, including the microwave oven, while traditional skills in food preparation are often forgotten. This is largely because only limited time is available to prepare meals at home. Among more discerning consumers there is, however, a greater awareness of food safety, animal welfare and environmental issues associated with food production and processing. All of the above considerations have had, and are continuing to have, a major impact on food- product development and marketing, and the poultry industry has responded successfully to the market demands and opportunities that have arisen.

With regard to poultry, the most important growth area of recent times has been the development of value-added, further-processed products. In the USA, for example, less than 10% of all broilers are sold as whole carcasses (Thornton and O’Keefe, 2002). The majority of carcasses are cut up, deboned or further processed and the meat is either portioned, sliced, ground, flavoured, marinated or cooked. There is also a large production of breaded and coated items. At one company alone, manufacture of these products increased by 16.5% per annum between 1996 and 2000. Therefore, there is growing demand for convenient, high-quality food products that provide variety and are quick and easy to prepare, while remaining attractive in price. At the same time, quality expectations are rising and products of ‘restaurant quality’ are of increasing interest (Thornton and O’Keefe, 2002). Thus, the industry is becoming ever more sophisticated and involved in food technology, which contrasts with its origins more than 50 years ago in primary agriculture, with only the simplest means of producing carcass meat. First of all, this chapter will consider, in general terms, the meaning of ‘quality’, the basic quality characteristics of poultry that are important to consumers and possible negative quality attributes associated with production and processing. Attention will be paid to the range of chemical, microbiological and physical hazards in poultry meat production and the ways in which consumer concerns are being tackled through the development of a ‘farm to fork’ approach to meat quality and safety control. Lastly, future trends will be highlighted, including changes in consumer demand and prospects for a reduced risk of product contamination with hazardous agents.

1.2 Meat quality: concept and characteristics

Any definition of the term ‘quality’ must take account of the many factors that impinge on this concept and the fact that each stage of the supply chain will define it differently according to need. The subject has been discussed in detail by Becker (2002) and will be covered only briefly here in relation to consumers. As with other foods, it is clear that price is the key factor in the successful marketing of poultry products, and this is inextricably linked to quality; in fact, price can be a measure of quality. However, modern consumers have wide- ranging demands that may encompass not only the price and sensory quality of the foods they buy, but also convenience, product safety, nutritional quality and the manner in which the food is produced.

In developed countries, poultry production and processing practices are controlled, at least in part, by legislation, and good practices may be further specified in various quality schemes that are efforts to co-ordinate quality requirements at specific stages of the supply chain. Such schemes can be led by producers, retailers, industry associations or government agencies (see Section 1.5).

Consumers define quality according to their own perceptions, goals and personal preferences, but, in practice, the quality concept has both subjective and objective components, and Becker (2002) recognises ‘quality cues’ (QC) and ‘quality attributes’ (QA). The former are what the consumer observes at the point of sale as a means of predicting quality performance, when the food is consumed. Examples of QC are the reputation of the place of purchase and products from free range or organically produced birds. QA, on the other hand, are what the consumer actually wants in relation to product quality. These include the scientifically measurable characteristics of colour/appearance, texture (involving juiciness and tenderness) and flavour.

Of particular importance are appearance and colour, reviewed by Fletcher (2002). Skin colour appears to be critical for the marketing of fresh whole birds or cut portions. The colour of the meat is more relevant to deboned and skinless, raw items and is particularly significant in relation to many cooked products, where a pink or red appearance is associated with an impression of undercooking. Dark or black bones are recognised as a defect in cooked products and bone darkening may be observed in products that have been frozen prior to cooking. Other visual defects include bruises and haemorrhages of varying severity. Consumer preference for skin colour shows some interesting variation for broilers, with preferred colours ranging from white, through pale yellow to deeply pigmented, and choice being based on traditional market forms (Fletcher, 2002).

Preferences for one type of colour or another have tended to show a regional pattern in the USA, while some consumers in the UK prefer corn-fed (yellow- skinned) birds to those with the usual whiter appearance, on the assumption that such birds have a better eating quality. Factors affecting the pigmentation of poultry skin were discussed by Fletcher (1989). With regard to meat colour, this can vary widely, especially in skinless breast fillets. Fletcher (1999) reported a US survey in which approximately 7% of retail packs of skinless fillets had one or more fillets that was clearly different from others in the same pack. Causes of colour variation in poultry meat were considered by Froning (1995) and include a variety of factors in bird rearing and processing. Although appearance and colour are undoubtedly important in initial product selection, consumers may also make judgements on other matters. In particular, some are likely to examine the label for nutritional information, details of any colourings, preservatives or other additives, as well as taking note of instructions on storage, handling and cooking of the product. Equally, consumers will take account of any negative quality attributes that are apparent. For whole carcasses, in particular, these can include dislocated or broken bones, cuts or tears in the skin, bruises, blisters, lesions, reddening of wing tips, residual feathers and fragments of tissue that are normally removed during processing, surface discolouration and excessive weepage of fluid into the pack. Such defects have their origin either on the farm or in the processing plant, and some may be associated with pre-slaughter handling of the birds. Generally, the most important visual defects are those due to bruises and haemorrhage (Fletcher, 2002), the latter being more visible when the skin has been removed. The difference between the two is that bruising results from physical trauma, without laceration, and involves rupture of capillary blood vessels; haemorrhage, on the other hand, is an escape of blood from the circulatory system into the surrounding tissue and is often seen as blood spots of varying size in skinless cut portions.

Meat flavour and texture can only be appreciated when the product is consumed, but usually there are no indications at this stage of chemical and microbiological aspects of product quality, which have to be taken on trust. Included here are any possible chemical contaminants and microorganisms derived from both the rearing and processing environments. Microbes can be important for two reasons. Firstly, in those products where microbial growth is favoured, they are potentially responsible for ultimate spoilage, especially in the case of chill-stored, raw-meat products, and shelf-life depends partly on the numbers of spoilage organisms present initially. Secondly, microbial contaminants may sometimes include low numbers of particular foodborne human pathogens. Problems associated with these and other potential hazards are considered below.

1.3 Food safety: poultry microbial hazards

Food safety is a major global issue and, in the developed world, the claim that ‘our food has never been safer’ is continually being challenged. Greater public awareness and concerns over food safety issues have been fuelled by various crises that have arisen, while consumer fears greatly increased following the widespread and damaging publicity given to these problems by the news media. Food ‘scares’, whether real or even partly imaginary, have become a phenomenon of the modern age and their consequences cannot be taken lightly. In 1999, for example, a major problem was caused by dioxin-contaminated feed given to livestock in Belgium (Erickson, 1999). The source of the contamination was a fat-rendering company,...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright page
• Contributor contact details
• Introduction
• 1: Meat quality and consumer requirements
• 2: Breeding and quality of poultry
• 3: Husbandry techniques
• 4: Stunning and slaughter of poultry
• 5: Primary processing of poultry
• 6: Further processing of poultry
• 7: Poultry packaging
• 8: Poultry refrigeration
• 9: Other poultry preservation techniques
• 10: Production of turkeys, geese, ducks and game birds
• 11: Microbial hazards in production and processing
• 12: Chemical residues in poultry
• 13: Shelf-life and spoilage of poultry meat
• 14: Measuring quality parameters
• 15: Managing the safety and quality of poultry meat
• 16: Treatment and disposal of poultry processing waste
• Index