Developmental Juvenile Osteology

Craig Cunningham, Louise Scheuer, Sue Black

• Publisher: Academic Press
• Year: 2016
• eBook ISBN: 9780123821072
• Edition: 2
• Topic: Biological Sciences
• Subtopic: Orthopedics
• Index: Biological Sciences

Developmental Juvenile Osteology was created as a core reference text to document the development of the entire human skeleton from early embryonic life to adulthood. In the period since its first publication there has been a resurgence of interest in the developing skeleton, and the second edition of Developmental Juvenile Osteology incorporates much of the key literature that has been published in the intervening time. The main core of the text persists by describing each individual component of the human skeleton from its embryological origin through to its final adult form. This systematic approach has been shown to assist the processes of both identification and age estimation and acts as a core source for the basic understanding of normal human skeletal development. In addition to this core, new sections have been added where there have been significant advances in the field. - Identifies every component of the juvenile skeleton, by providing a detailed analysis of development and ageing and a detailed description of each bone in four ways: adult bone, early development, ossification and practical notes - New chapters and updated sections covering the dentition, age estimation in the living and bone histology - An updated bibliography documenting the research literature that has contributed to the field over the past15 years since the publication of the first edition - Heavily illustrated, including new additions

Chapter 1

Introduction

A Guide to the Text

Abstract

This chapter introduces the importance of correct identification of juvenile skeletal remains and highlights the value of understanding the development of the juvenile skeleton to a variety of professions. The chapter provides an introduction to the text including a brief historical overview of its composition and summarizes the content and structure of each subsequent chapter. Details are provided regarding the illustrations contained throughout the book, and an overview of the text’s extensive bibliography is considered.

Keywords

Development; Identification; Juvenile; Skeleton

It must surely be clear that if we wish to safeguard the interests of our science (physical anthropology), and of those innocents who identify themselves with it, and who by so doing voluntarily condemn themselves to a precarious, albeit interesting life brachiating as it were from one lower income bracket to another, then it is our duty to see to it that they are properly equipped for the work which they wish to do and which so urgently requires to be done.

Montagu (1941)

The correct identification of the skeletal components of the juvenile skeleton is critical to the analysis of skeletal remains, regardless of whether they are of archaeological or forensic origin. Without such information it is virtually impossible to establish the number of individuals represented, let alone ascertain their identity and make meaningful inference on demographic or health-related issues. Indeed, a lack of familiarity with immature remains has led, on more than one occasion, to their classification as ‘non-human’ or ‘of uncertain origin’. Once the remains have been confirmed as human, the next step is usually an attempt to establish the four principal parameters of biological identity (sex, age at death, stature and ancestry). However, with juvenile skeletal remains it is often only the estimation of the age at death that can be established with any degree of reliability. Sex estimation from juvenile remains is tentative at best, and stature is so closely linked to the age of the individual that it is often used to predict it. Ancestry is difficult to establish in the adult, so in the child it is highly speculative at best, especially when only skeletal remains are presented.

The value of understanding juvenile skeletal remains should not be overlooked in both the medical and the anatomical fields of study. A glance through the reference section will demonstrate the critical nature of understanding normal juvenile development to facilitate diagnosis and treatment of aberrant conditions.

The first edition of this text was published in 2000 and in the intervening period there has been a resurgence of interest in this fascinating field, but the main purpose of this book remains the same. Its aim is to describe each individual bone of the skeleton, or indeed different components of a bone, and follow development from embryological origin through to the final adult form. This systematic approach has been shown to assist the processes of both identification and age estimation of the juvenile skeleton and to aid as a core source for basic understanding of normal human skeletal development. The passage of time has ensured that the already full reference section is enhanced further and although the main core of the text persists, new sections have been added where it was felt that the expertise of others would enhance the original concept.

Chapter 2–4 form a general introduction to the juvenile skeleton. Chapter 2 considers many of the fundamental issues concerning juvenile skeletal remains including the origin of such material, the various techniques by which it has been studied, the variability of child growth, the dilemma of biological versus chronological age and skeletal versus dental age. Age estimation in the living has become a major issue for border control, migration and human trafficking, and our thanks are extended to Dr. Lucina Hackman who has introduced this subject here to demonstrate that age determination from the skeleton is not restricted to the domain of the deceased. Chapter 3 examines the more specific cellular and vascular nature of bone growth and development. It discusses the ontogenetic development of bone from its mesenchymal origins, through a cartilaginous or membranous template, to its eventual transformation into bone. Bone growth is considered, as is the influence of its vascularity. Dr. Paul Felts enhances the value of this section not only in relation to the basic cellular composition but also the relevance to bone modelling and remodelling as it pertains to not only normal growth but also to repair and pathology. Chapter 4 has been reviewed and updated by Dr. Catherine Carr and provides a very brief outline of the early embryological development of the human body as a whole, and sets the scene for the more specific developmental aspects of the skeleton that are discussed in subsequent chapters.

Chapters 5–12 respectively form the core of the text and describe the morphological development of the immature skeleton in a way that permits the ready identification of each skeletal element and thus allows an evaluation of the age at death of the individual. The chapters are arranged in a topographical order, commencing with the axial skeleton and continuing with the upper and then the lower limb girdles and their associated appendages. Each chapter is essentially separated into four sections–the adult bone, early development, ossification and practical notes. Chapter 6 takes a different format as it considers the dentition, and Dr. Helen Liversidge, has greatly enhanced this section from the original text and included the latest data on ageing from the dentition.

Each of the main chapters begins with a description of the adult bone(s) but this is far from an exhaustive consideration of the subject as there are many excellent texts written specifically to fulfil this purpose. However, it was deemed necessary to include this section primarily to ensure consistency of terminology used in the subsequent sections on the development and ossification of the bone. Where possible, the accepted standard anatomical planes and terminology have been used throughout, although more commonly used names and others that reflect a historical origin have sometimes been included. Several anomalies of the adult skeleton have been addressed as the understanding of variation is an important concept that is diminishing as teaching of anatomy in particular moves away from more traditional methods towards computer models and plastic skeletal teaching aids. While it is appreciated that these minor skeletal variants may be of limited clinical value, they can occasionally prove extremely important in the identification of the deceased. In anthropological terms of course, many of these anomalies are referred to as non-metric traits that may be considered indicative of potential genetic influences (Berry, 1975; Finnegan, 1978). A variety of relevant clinical conditions has also been introduced in this section where they have some bearing on the future development of the bone. Comment has often been made with regards to the value of that particular element in the assessment of some parameters of biological identity (sex, ancestry and stature). While this is not the primary aim of this text, it serves only to direct the reader to other sources of reference.

The illustrations of the adult bones are represented by stippled line drawings with muscle attachments indicated. The illustrations throughout the book always depict the right-hand side of the body.

The early development of each bone is described directly after the discussion of the adult morphology. Each description follows on from the stage outlined previously in Chapter 4 and deals with the specific embryological and early fetal development of that particular bone. This section charts its development from the blastemal condition up to the stage prior to the commencement of ossification. It also includes reference to various congenital conditions and anomalies that may arise during this period and which could subsequently alter the final adult morphology of the bone.

The section on ossification describes the development of the bone from the time of appearance of the first centre(s) of ossification up to the stage of final fusion of the epiphyses. In most chapters, this section is in three parts: primary centres, secondary centres and pattern of epiphyseal fusion. It is in this section of the book that the illustrations are most important as they not only highlight the earliest stage at which a particular element can be identified with certainty, but also describe the morphological changes that occur in that bone throughout its development. However, it has not always been possible to illustrate a specific stage of development due to the limited availability of material. The illustrations in this section are half-tone drawings of bones, many of which are of known age and sex and again only the right side of the body is depicted. It should be mentioned that all of the drawings from Mrs. Angela Christie are derived from actual bone specimens which are now housed in the Scheuer collection at the University of Dundee. As an active repository for juvenile skeletal remains, it is an invaluable source but it cannot in any way be considered as a ‘population’ as the origins of the material are diverse–anatomical specimens, archaeological material and forensic casework.

The final section within each chapter is headed Practical Notes. This represents a summary or morphological timetable of critical osteological events from the commencement of ossification to final epiphyseal fusion (or the attainment of final adult form). The practical notes include guidelines on the sideing of remains and how to orientate them to achieve correct identification of the skeletal element. In addition, there is a small section that offers suggestions on which other bones that have a similar morphology may cause some confusion and thus result in misidentification.

Finally, some tables of metric information are included that may prove useful in the estimation of age at death. This tends to include primarily observations on individuals of documented age to remove the inherent errors of the circular argument that ensues when age is subsequently predicted on the basis of the accuracy of another method (see Chapter 2). Naturally, this reduces the number of studies that could be included but it may serve to highlight where further research could be pursued. The additional sources of information collated for The Juvenile Skeleton (Scheuer and Black, 2004) and for Juvenile Osteology (Schaefer et al., 2009) have been included in this second edition.

By far the most comprehensive account of fetal bone remains is that published by Fazekas and Kósa (English translation of 1978) referring to a group of 136 fetuses ranging from 12 to 40 weeks gestation. However, the sample was essentially of undocumented age at death and age was assigned on the basis of its well-documented relationship with body length (Streeter, 1920; Scammon and Calkins, 1929; Schultz, 1929a). There is, however, no other detailed text on fetal osteology and given the fact that all fetal material must, by necessity, be of uncertain age (see Chapter 2) its inclusion remains justified.

As each bone of the skeleton is considered from its earliest formation to its adult morphology, it is obvious that each would display its own idiosyncrasies and resist being forced into a standard chapter format. As a result, while an attempt has been made to adhere to an organized structure, each chapter is, by necessity, slightly different in terms of its layout. For example, in Chapter 5 (Skull) there is a general introduction to the early development of the skull as a whole to prevent needless repetition of material that is common to a structure composed of so many conjoined elements. Also, there is no section on secondary centres, as these do not occur in the skull. Similarly in Chapter 7, as the vertebral column is an axial structure, there is obviously no section on side identification and instead this is replaced by identification of position within a series.

In addition to the principal elements of the skeleton, other structures such as the costal cartilages have been included. Being composed of hyaline cartilage, these structures maintain the potential to ossify and may do so at an age when the remainder of the skeleton is still in its late developmental phase. For this reason it is important that the structures can be identified, as they may be encountered in the excavation or retrieval of immature remains. While such ossifications have always tended to be considered entirely within the domain of the elderly, the inaccuracy of this assumption is highlighted and awareness of their existence can lead to an increase in successful retrieval rates.

One of the overwhelming comments to arise from the first edition of this text was the value of the extensive reference section which has been expanded in this edition to ensure currency. The quantity of literature differs for each bone and so by necessity some areas are more heavily referenced than others. Many of the most basic descriptions of bones are historical and are where we tend to find the greatest attention to detail, so we make no apology that the references span over 300 years. Wise (1995) accused many authors of ignoring the contributors of the past, stating that ‘we may have stood on the shoulders of giants but we did not cite them’. He attributes this to authors becoming victims of technology, relying on the use of information retrieval systems that tend not to extend to more than 25 years ago–but that does not mean that they should be consigned to obscurity because of modern laziness that keeps us in front of our screens and does not see us resort to the original source. Many of the older texts may also express views and descriptions that would not now be considered ethically acceptable. Titles of these papers have obviously been given as they stand and, where appropriate, the text has been quoted verbatim in the hope that accusations of political incorrectness may not be directed at this text. O’Rahilly (1996) raised the criticism that rather than seek out the original reference, many authors substitute reviews of the subject or even cite student textbooks where, in all fairn...

Table of contents

• Cover image
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• Copyright
• First Edition Foreword: The Development of Juvenile Osteology
• Second Edition Foreword
• Preface
• Chapter 1. Introduction: A Guide to the Text
• Chapter 2. Skeletal Development and Ageing
• Chapter 3. Bone Development
• Chapter 4. Early Embryological Development
• Chapter 5. The Skull
• Chapter 6. Dentition
• Chapter 7. The Vertebral Column
• Chapter 8. The Thorax
• Chapter 9. The Pectoral Girdle
• Chapter 10. The Upper Limb
• Chapter 11. The Pelvic Girdle
• Chapter 12. The Lower Limb
• Appendix 1
• Appendix 2
• References
• Index