Exploring Islam

Theology and Spiritual Practice in America

Salih Sayilgan

• Publisher: Fortress Press
• Year: 2021
• Print ISBN: 9781506468020
• eBook ISBN: 9781506468037
• Topic: Theology & Religion
• Subtopic: Islamic Theology

Exploring Islam is a comprehensive yet accessible introduction to the foundations of the Islamic faith, including its history, theology, and spiritual practice. The book also deals with issues such as jihad, the status of women, and the various sectarian divisions in Islam. Most distinctive about this work is its analysis of the lived experience of Muslims in modern American life. The book explores questions such as:

- What are the foundations of Islam?

- How do Muslims relate to and interpret the Qur'an?

- Who is the Prophet Muhammad?

- What does Shari'a law really mean?

- What are the major themes of Islamic theology?

- What are the theological and political issues that led to divisions among Muslims?

- Do Muslims and Christians believe in the same God?

- How do Muslims practice Islam in America?

- What are the challenges and opportunities for American Muslims?

In addressing these questions, Sayilgan offers readers a perspective that is scholarly, judicious, and engaging.

Part 1

Historical Background

1 The Near East before the Birth of Islam

The story of Islam begins with the first revelation of the Qur’an from the archangel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia in the early sixth century CE. But before exploring the events of the Prophet’s life and their significance in the development of Islam, I will briefly introduce the social, cultural, political, and religious landscape of the time in the Near East.

On the eve of the birth of Islam, two empires dominated the Near East: the Byzantine and the Sasanian (Persian). The Byzantine Empire controlled the western part of Arabia, a geographic area encompassing modern-day Turkey, Syria, and Egypt; the Sasanian Empire controlled the eastern part. These two imperial powers were in constant competition for political, economic, and religious influence in the region.1 For the last several decades before the collapse of the Sasanian state in the 630s, for example, the Byzantines and Sasanians were at war, vying for control of key areas such as northern Mesopotamia, Armenia, and the Caucasus.2

In both civilizations, male elites enjoyed enormous influence. In the Byzantine or eastern Roman Empire, this privileged class mainly consisted of landowners, clergy, and state officials. Their authority over slaves, women, children, and many members of the common class was unquestionable.3 In the Sasanian Empire, society was divided into hierarchical classes, with slaves solidly at the bottom of the hierarchy.4

The Religious Landscape

Religion was an important force in almost all major societies in late antiquity. While Buddhism and Neo-Taoism were gaining significant influence in China, Hinduism was being promoted by royal powers in Indic lands.5 By the time of the birth of Islam, the Byzantine Empire had adopted Christianity as its official state religion, hoping to unite all imperial subjects within its vast territory. However, even Christians were divided into various groups over fundamental theological disagreements about the nature of Jesus.

The official church of the Byzantine Empire, which is today commonly known as the Eastern Orthodox Church (a communion of over fourteen autocephalous churches), taught that Jesus was both divine and human—that he had two distinct natures united in one divine person. With this theological position, the official church (based in what was then Constantinople) was able to explain the crucifixion of Jesus: although his human body died on the cross, his divine nature rendered him immortal.6 This teaching became prevalent in the Balkans, Greece, and Palestine, as the imperial authority was strong in these places. By contrast, the Nestorian churches (today called the Church of the East), located in the Sasanian Empire and central Asia, diverged from orthodoxy by affirming that Jesus had two persons, one human and one divine. As a consequence, Nestorians rejected the idea that Mary was the God-bearer (theotókos), asserting instead that she was the Christ-bearer (Christotokos). This theology was condemned at the Council of Ephesus in 431 CE.

Out of opposition to Nestorianism, Eutyches, a monk and presbyter from Constantinople, taught that not only did Jesus have only one person; he had only one nature. This theology became popular among Christians living in Egypt, Syria, and Armenia, who at the time were called Monophysites (because they believed Jesus had a single nature). Monophysite theology was affirmed at the “Robber Council” held in Ephesus in 449 CE, which concluded without considering Pope Leo I’s tome defending two-nature Christology. Amid these theological divisions and at Pope Leo’s urging, Byzantine emperor Marcian (d. 457) called for the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE. Through the council, Marcian attempted to unite the Christian subjects of the empire around one unifying theology.

The Sasanian Empire provided space for a religiously diverse environment but officially endorsed Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism), which emphasizes the cosmic struggle between the forces of good and evil. According to Zoroastrian theology, these forces are represented by light (fire and the sun) and dark. Based on this belief, followers offer special prayers during sunset and sunrise. Rituals centered on temple flames are also key in Zoroastrian worship practices.7 Zoroastrianism continues to be practiced today among the Parsi and Irani communities of India.

Judaism was also a significant part of the religious landscape of the Near East in the early seventh century. After centuries of Babylonian, Persian, Greek, and Roman rule resulting in major population displacements from Palestine, Jews were spread around the region and in Yemen and North Africa.

Arabia before Islam

The religious landscape in Arabia was rather different from that of the empires. While both the Byzantines and Sasanians were competing for political, economic, and religious influence in the area, no one enjoyed absolute dominance. This state of flux was notable in the Hejaz region, where Mecca and Yathrib (later called Medina) were located (the two cities in which the Prophet Muhammad had lived), perhaps because Hejaz was mountainous and of marginal value for farming.8 Unlike in the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, tribal rules and kinship ties dictated social and political order in Arabia.9 Violating tribal rules could mean death for an individual member of the tribe, and retaliatory feuds were common. When a member of one tribe suffered harm or injury at the hands of another, all members of the perpetrator’s tribe were blamed for the crime. Retaliation usually amounted to “an eye for an eye, a life for a life.” If the injured group saw itself as stronger than the other group, then the cost of retaliation would be even greater and might lead to war.10

Hejaz was a center of commerce, and Mecca in particular drew traders from around western and central Arabia.11 People from the surrounding areas flocked to the annual market fair in Mecca known as Ukaz. Mecca also attracted visitors wishing to view the Kaaba—a cubic structure regarded as sacred to this day. Islamic tradition relates that Abraham and his family built the Kaaba as the house of God. Since its inception, the Kaaba has represented monotheism. At some point, however, likely as a result of the wide variety of people coming to the town from across the region, it also became a center of polytheism. It started with a Meccan merchant who brought an idol to Mecca. Not long after, many tribes started to have their own idols. Owning an idol would later become a unifying element for each tribe. These idols were believed to be divine protectors, and they were venerated at local shrines.12 Three of these idols received special veneration, not only by the tribes in Mecca, but also by Arabs from neighboring areas. These divinities were al-Lat, al-Uzza, and Manat.13 The offerings to these deities were mainly in the form of “I give you, lord, you will give me that favor in return.”14

While polytheism was more common in Hejaz, Arabs of the region were familiar with monotheistic religious traditions like Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism. Arabs traded often with people hailing from cities in Yemen, Syria, and Iraq, which were religiously diverse areas with considerable Christian populations.15 In Mecca, where Islam was born, a number of people followed a form of monotheism described in the Qur’an as hanif. Islamic tradition reports that some followers of the hanif tradition later converted to Christianity.

As in the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, a sizable Jewish community lived in Arabia, including in the Hejaz region. Scholars believe that the presence of Jews in Arabia dates from the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Arabic-speaking Jews could be found in the major oasis towns of northwestern Arabia, including Tabuk, Tayma, Khaybar, and Yathrib (Medina).16

Jahiliyya: The Time of Ignorance

Islamic tradition refers to the pre-Islamic period of Arabia as the time of ignorance (jahiliyya). The term refers to the polytheistic practices and social injustices of the time, including the worship of idols and the practice of female infanticide. The Qur’an alludes to the latter practice: “When news is brought to one of them, of (the birth of) a female (child), his face darkens, and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people, because of the bad news he has had! Shall he keep it in humiliation, or bury it in the ground? Verily, evil is their judgement.”17

Jafar bin Abi Talib, a cousin to and companion of the Prophet, described this period in detail during his conversation with the Christian king of Abyssinia. When the king asked about Muhammad’s message and teaching, Jafar bin Abi Talib replied,

O King, we were an uncivilized people worshiping idols, eating corpses, committing abominations, breaking natural ties, treating guests badly, and our strong devoured our weak. Thus w...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Dedication
• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• Introduction
• Part 1: Historical Background
• Part 2: Foundations
• Part 3: Theology: Articles of Faith
• Part 4: Spiritual Practice: Pillars of Islam
• Part 5: Contemporary Questions
• Bibliography
• Index