POSITION OVERVIEW
First and foremost, during the Late Bronze Age Troy was a âcontested peripheryâ located between the Mycenaeans to the west and the Hittites to the east. There is both direct and indirect evidence that each group regarded the Troad as lying on the periphery of its own territory and attempted to claim it for itself. As I have argued in previous articles, whereas the Hittite king Tudhaliya II sent troops to quell the Assuwa rebellion in the late-fifteenth century and later Hittite kings left their mark as well, Ahhiyawan warriors apparently also fought on occasion in this region from the fifteenth through the thirteenth centuries BC (Cline 1996, 1997).
Second, perhaps because of its status as a âcontested periphery,â the city of Troy itself, and possibly also surrounding communities, such as BeĆiktepe, were likely to have been home, or at least played host, to a variety of people of different cultures and ethnicities during the Late Bronze Age, whether permanent inhabitants, traveling merchants, sailors or warriors. The archaeological remains should reflect this diversity to a certain extent, as indeed they do in some cases (see the various finds in the BeĆiktepe cemetery, for example; Basedow 2000, 2001).
However, I suggest that early excavators, such as Heinrich Schliemann with his hordes of workmen, will not have been nuanced enough in their approach necessarily to have discerned such diversity. Fortunately, the manner in which archaeology has been conducted in Anatolia has changed dramatically over the past century, in part because of the new questions being asked, in part because of the increasingly multidisciplinary nature of the new projects, and in part because of the new approaches being undertaken â particularly the cross-disciplinary efforts between archaeologists, historians, linguists, anthropologists, and other scholars. The recent efforts of Manfred Korfmann, with his integrated team of archaeologists and scientists, have sent us in new and interesting directions since the late 1980s and allow us to study the excavated material more carefully than ever before.
As my third and final point, I will suggest that Troy may be used as a specific case study not only of a âcontested peripheryâ in terms of its geographical location in Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age but also as a âcontested peripheryâ today in terms of its scholarly location, for the study of Troy and the Trojan War is positioned on the periphery between academic and popular scholarship. As Professor Spyros Iakovides, one of my original dissertation advisors with whom I have stayed in contact, wrote to me recently: âBe careful about the Trojan War. It is a slippery slope on which much has been said and writtenâ (personal communication, 31 July 2004).
TROY AND THE TROAD AS A âCONTESTED PERIPHERYâ
Several years ago I published an article in which I argued that Megiddo and the Jezreel Valley in Israel could be viewed as a âcontested peripheryâ throughout history. The term âcontested peripheryâ was first coined by Mitchell Allen for use in his 1997 UCLA dissertation concerned with Philistia, the Neo-Assyrians, and World Systems Theory. Allen identified âcontested peripheriesâ as âborder zones where different systems intersect.â Chase-Dunn and Hall immediately adopted this term and defined it more formally as âa peripheral region for which one or more core regions competeâ (Allen 1997, 49-51, 320-21, fig. 1.4; cf. also Berquist 1995a, 1995b; Chase-Dunn and Hall 1997, 37; Cline 2000).
In my original article on Megiddo, which appeared in the Journal of World-Systems Research in 2000, I said that if this concept of a âcontested peripheryâ is to become a viable part of World Systems Theory, it must be able to explain more than a single case. Now I will suggest that it can. Back then, I suggested that additional areas in the world that might also qualify as âcontested peripheriesâ were the area of Troy and the Troad, Dilmun in the Persian Gulf region, areas in the North American Midwest or Southwest, perhaps various regions in Mesoamerica, and the Kephissos River Valley commanded by Boeotian Thebes in central Greece. I have not yet had time to investigate the other suggestions, but I would now argue that the region of Troy and the Troad does indeed qualify as a âcontested peripheryâ (Cline 2000).1
As I have argued previously, the term âcontested peripheryâ has geographical, political and economic implications, since such a region will almost always lie between two larger empires, kingdoms or polities established to either side of it. Moreover, I would still argue that âcontested peripheriesâ are also likely to be areas of intense military activity, precisely because of their geographical locations and constantly changing political affiliations. Thus, Mitchell Allenâs phrase is not only applicable to the area of Megiddo and the Jezreel Valley in northern Israel, which has seen thirty-four battles during the past 4,000 years, but is also, I would argue, applicable to the area of Troy and the Troad. This region has similarly been the focus of battles during the past 3,500 years or more, from at least the time of the Trojan War in the Late Bronze Age right up to the infamous battle at Gallipoli across the Hellespont during World War I. (The Hellespont is, of course, also known as the Dardanelles and is the strait leading from the Aegean Sea into the Sea of Marmara, which then connects with the Black Sea.)
Like Megiddo in Israel, which commands the Jezreel Valley, the region of Troy and the Troad in Anatolia, commanding the Hellespont was always a major crossroads, controlling routes leading south to north, west to east, and vice versa. Whoever controlled Troy and the Troad, and thus the entrance to the Hellespont, by default also controlled the entire region both economically and politically, vis ĂĄ vis the trade and traffic through the area, whether sailors, warriors, or merchants. As âa thriving centre of... commerce at a strategic point in shipping between the Aegean and Black seas,â it is not difficult to see why this region was so desirable for so many centuries to so many different people. 2
In the specific case of the Trojan War, I would argue that Troy and the Troad region was caught between the Mycenaeans, located to the west but interested in expanding ever eastward, and the Hittites, located to the east and interested in expanding ever westward.3 Moreover, I would argue that it was the Trojan War itself that partially gave this region its geographical je ne sais quoi from then on, bringing great conquerors together through time and space in a way that no other circumstance has or can. Xerxes, the Persian king, stopped by in 480 BC, while en route to his invasion of Greece. Alexander the Great came to visit the site in 334 BC, making sacrifices to Athena and dedicating his armor in a temple there, before continuing on to conquer Egypt and much of the ancient Near East. Later, Julius Caesar, Caracalla, Constantine, and Mehmet II (the conqueror of Constantinople) all went out of their way to visit the site and pay their respects (Sage 2000). Like Megiddo in Israel, Troy and the Troad is among the elite sites and areas of the world that can claim to have seen many different armies and many famous leaders march through their lands during a sustained period from the Bronze Age to the Nuclear Age.
A continuous stream of armies should actually be expected as a natural occurrence in a region such as the Troad or the Jezreel Valley, which sit astride important routes where different geographical, economic, and political world-systems came into frequent contact, and which may have grown wealthy in part by exploiting international connections. Such desirable peripheral regions would likely gain the covetous gaze of rulers in one or more neighboring cores and thus would be highly contested. Like Megiddo, Troy may have had insufficient hinterland and natural resources to become a true core on its own, but it certainly became a major entrepĂŽt and an important periphery, waxing and waning in a complex series of cycles with the nearby major players and world-systems who competed for control of this lucrative region each time they pulsed outward and bumped into each other (cf. Hall 1999, 9-10).
If an area is truly a âcontested periphery,â I would expect to find shifts in key trading partners, particularly if the region changed hands or political affiliations every so often. Such changes can also take place even if the region doesnât change hands or political affiliations, especially if the area, like the Jezreel Valley or the Troad, is located on a major trade route. Indeed, both regions fit the definition of an entrĂȘpot or a crossroads area, providing a zone of cross-fertilization for the ideas, technology, and material goods that came into and passed through the region (cf. Teggart 1918, 1925; Bronson 1978; Bentley 1993).
As a perfect example of such cross-fertilization, I would offer the bronze sword from the time of the Hittite king Tudhaliya II, dating to about 1430 BC, which was found in 1991 by a bulldozer operator working near ancient Hattusaâs famous Lion Gate. The sword, which has generated much publicity and many publications concerning its origin, looks suspiciously like a Mycenaean Type B sword generally manufactured and used in mainland Greece â by Mycenaeans â during this period. As I have suggested in two previously published and related articles, if this sword is not actually a product of a Mycenaean workshop, then it is an extremely good imitation of such a Type B sword, perhaps manufactured on the western coast of Anatolia. Either way, this sword is an excellent example of the transmission of either actual material goods, or ideas about such goods, during the Late Bronze Age in the region of the Troad.4
Even more importantly, inscribed on the blade of the sword is a single line in Akkadian, which reads in translation: âAs Duthaliya [Tudhaliya] the Great King shattered the Assuwa-Country, he dedicated these swords to the Storm-God, his Lord.â The inscription thus confirms other accounts written during Tudhaliyaâs reign concerning a rebellion by a group of twenty-two small vassal kingdoms, collectively known as Assuwa, along the northwestern coast of Anatolia. Tudhaliya, the accounts tell us, marched west to crush this so-called Assuwa Rebellion. This is potentially extremely important for the history of Troy, for it seems that the city was a member of this Assuwa coalition that rebelled against the Hitttites â the last two named polities of this coalition are Wilusiya and Taruisa.5
The literary texts from Tudhaliyaâs reign suggest that one of the allies of the Assuwa league were men from âAhhiyawa:â This place name comes up frequently in Hittite documents. It has been the cause of debates among Hittitologists ...