Food Culture, Consumption and Society

Paolo Corvo

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781349561001, 9781137398161
• eBook ISBN: 9781137398178
• Topic: Sozialwissenschaften
• Subtopic: Politik

This book analyses how consumer food choices have undergone profound changes in the context of the economic crisis, including the rediscovery of local products and the diffusion of multi-ethnic food. Corvo argues that a new ecological relationship between food and the environment is needed to reduce food problems such as food waste and obesity.

1

Introduction

1.1 The methodological criteria to study food

When I started to think about a book like this and its structure, I remembered the question I had been asked by a member of the high school leaving examination commission: he asked me the meaning of the assertion “Man is what he eats” – by the nineteenth-century German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach. I answered trying to satisfy the commission, saying that – for example – in the morning I could have a coffee to feel more dynamic or a chamomile tea to calm myself down. I grasped the importance of food in determining human behaviour. The commission liked my answer, and I passed the exam with good results. I have to admit, however, that I have really grasped the profound meaning of Feuerbach’s statement only recently, thanks to my research experience as assistant professor at the University of Gastronomic Sciences of Bra-Pollenzo (Italy). Actually, the Hegelian philosopher focused his attention on food studies a century before the investigation of anthropologists and then of sociologists; as a matter of fact, his sentence “Man is what he eats” well presents all the implications that food has. He points out that food is an essential element for the life of human beings and that it is important to follow certain rules to enjoy good health. But he also reveals that man not only nourishes himself but also eats: i.e., man attaches to eating a meaning that goes beyond the merely physiological one. To eat means to have pleasant sensations (and sometimes unpleasant), to try special emotions, to socialise with other table companions. Food is a source of energy and memory, identity and encounter, relation with the Earth and nature, a symbol of social status.

If food is all of this, to write a book about food is a difficult and very challenging but interesting and charming task. This is not a recipe book, as the ones very popular nowadays all over the world and often with a great editorial success. In some circumstances these texts also assume a scientific significance, when accompanied by a historical-cultural note explaining the background of the recipes. Our book is not intended to deal with recipes; it should tackle the roots of this phenomenon, to understand the social meaning of food today and its relations with other cultural products, to define and interpret the practices of food consumption.

The task of the sociologist is to investigate contemporary society, which is – because of its nature – continuously changing; within that society the sociologist is involved as a social actor. To live in a context, trying to interpret it, is a daily challenge which every sociologist, that is a social scientist, has to face and if possible achieve, supported by classic authors and methodological tools. This epistemological approach is even further difficult because of profound changes – as innovative models and original practices – affecting both food and food consumption. The global financial and social crisis continues to invest the Western countries, helping to create a “liquid” society, making it difficult to draw the prospects for the future.

It is worth noting also the deep relations that exist between food and other key issues which mankind has to confront, as for example the respect for environment and natural landscape, the comparison between the cultures and the phenomenon of migrants, the search for alternative energy sources, the relation with technology. As a consequence of the difficulty to understand the present situation and to forecast the uncertain future of food, the demand for a definition and a sociological interpretation of the phenomenon is increasing. This request comes first from those who work in the domain of food, at various levels, in the cultivation, production or distribution, who perceive the changes and want to be able to deal with them adequately. But consumers also want to better know what is happening, in order to choose, with greater awareness, products which are healthier and more respectful of the environment and the principles of social justice. There is a desire for knowledge of facts and situations. That desire increases the responsibility of the scholar and the need to develop an in-depth analysis of what is happening. For this reason, it is important to choose a precise direction in the social investigation, outlining some theoretical and methodological guidelines. In writing this book we have adopted this approach, following constantly some criteria that are explained in the following paragraphs.

The first feature that has been taken into consideration concerns the relation between sociology and other disciplines, especially those belonging to the social and human sciences. A holistic approach to food – i.e., the ability to catch all the aspects that characterise it – is necessitated to understand food dynamics. More, it is as important to know the organoleptic properties of a product as its history and cultivation processes, the making and packaging processes, the distribution, the sales and marketing practices, the consumer trends, the aesthetic enjoyment of food, the social and anthropological meanings of dining. Then, sociology is a necessary but not sufficient science to understand food phenomena. The task of the sociologist should be to identify his specific research field and to avail himself of the knowledge and ideas he can acquire in dialogue with scholars from other fields. The contribution of other disciplines – such as anthropology, psychology, economics, philosophy and history – is essential particularly because they are close to sociology for their methods and approaches. Interdisciplinarity becomes the privileged method to proceed in research because to be valid it requires scientific and methodological rigour. We believe that our work can and should avail itself of the contribution of other sciences, however maintaining its specific language and method. The interdisciplinary method works if each discipline brings its specific contribution in a different way from the others and with a holistic approach. In cases where that distinction between the sciences is not clear and there is a mix of languages and methods, the analysis is likely to lose its subtlety and its depth.

The issues addressed before are pertinent to sociology and let us introduce the second methodological principle we intend to follow in this publication. Since food studies often concern very delicate topics – which invest political democracy as issues of economics, social and economic justice, welfare, and quality of life – it is difficult not to consider these dimensions which concern the daily life of people. Moreover, the sociologist has to consider the ideas of the classic authors in order to conduct trustworthy and scientifically valuable research. For example, it is not possible to ignore the idea of the value-neutral method of social research, suggested by Max Weber (Bruun, Whimster, 2012). In practice, sociologists should observe value neutrality while conducting social research. It means that they should exclude personal, ideological or non-scientific assumptions from research. This principle may be by far valid, in particular in the Western contemporary society, where opinions are much more decisive than research in determining consumer choices and ways of living. Then, it has to be assessed what is the way to intervene in the social and cultural contemporary debate following the value-neutral method. We believe it seems possible to follow the method suggested by Baumann (2000). In the “liquid” modernity, mass media allow you to know what is happening in the world in real time. Because of that, no one can ignore injustices and tragedies of mankind or problems related to food (e.g., world hunger). Baumann argues that this awareness involves a sense of responsibility for every citizen and even more for every social scientist. According to the great Polish thinker, sociology should intervene in matters related to human suffering, analysing the causes and consequences of problems often caused by structural conditions that should be modified. It may appear difficult to reconcile Weber and Baumann, but in actual fact it will suffice to divide the various stages of research. The principle of the value-neutral method has to be strictly followed during the development of the analysis, even if the results are different from one’s expectations or do not match one’s theorisation. Again, today the social scientist should act in proactive modalities before and after the investigation.

Before starting a research it is necessary to choose the issues to be investigated according to the interest and the principal values of the scientist. The results, then, should be used to contribute to serious and delicate problem solving, especially those problems concerning people, territories and countries. Although we have our human and professional limits, we are sure that better understanding a phenomenon can promote its positive evolution.

The more the work of the researcher is scientifically valid and held in high esteem by the academic community and the readers, the more it can be of great importance to significantly influence the cultural debate and the political choices. On the contrary, the ideological views invalidate the objectivity of social studies and compromise their potential. The social scientist – a craftsman of knowledge, as was defined by Baumann in a conference held in Milan a few years ago – tries to answer with humbleness and determination the need for knowledge that contemporary society has. We have tried to apply this modality to our studies as well as to this book, in particular in the chapter dedicated to food problems which are full of social and political implications, both at the local and the global level.

Contemporary sociology is characterised by many schools of thought; they are not necessarily related to the two historical currents of individualism and functionalism. New emerging topics – just as food – and the accelerated evolution of social phenomena have led to the redefinition of many paradigms and the research of languages apt for the addressed issues. In our view the social actors (in the Weberian sense) that should be considered by analysing food are at least three: individuals, civil society (that is movements, associations, businesses, non-profit organisations and so on) and institutions. We think that the social action of the citizen can determine significant changes in the dynamics linked to food, for example, in daily consumption choices (Fabris, 2010) and in the ability to acquire a new awareness of the cultural and symbolic meaning of food.

To achieve more important goals it is necessary that civil society rallies round and expresses all its potential of social energy that appears to be limited by the global market. As a matter of fact, the proactive intervention of movements and associations is particularly recommended for the world of food at the level of both local and international territories. Anyway, a global civil society can act also in the field of consumption and cultural products, despite all the difficulties that may be encountered in achieving the objectives (Kaldor, 2003). This means to act concretely in the daily routine with perseverance and determination, also using web and social networking, which allow a rapid global spread of ideas and initiatives. In this way some goals that may appear utopian become feasible through a continuous comparison with reality and structural problems.

The interaction with institutions which have a central role in modern democracies is another difficult aspect the civil society has to face. In food decision-making processes, institutions such as the UN, FAO, EU, World Bank and IMF have a special relevance because they determine food and agricultural policies much more than the nation states. The more optimistic possibility would be that the institutions listen and accept the requests coming from civil society. There is the continuous risk that institutions become more sensitive to particular interests. It seems important to have a greater democratic participation in some institutions, like the European Union (EU); it is also important that the action of great supranational bodies would be directed to maximum transparency and with effective communication systems.

I believe that this interpretative model based on the interaction between individuals, civil society and institutions allows us – perhaps more than any other – to recognise effectively the social dynamics and to identify the possible developments. The world of food affects all of us because every human being nourishes him- or herself and eats with other humans, for this reason not to consider the role of the individual would mean to exclude a significant part of the gastronomic reality.

It seems appropriate to express another methodological consideration in relation to the cultural framework of reference. Even though our education is focused on humanities and social sciences, and mainly based on the Western culture, our approach to food is not Eurocentric since it is dedicated to a global vision of the treated issues. First of all, we have experienced life events which nourish our work as social scientists: a scientific approach inspired by a cosmopolitan perception; the daily contacts with foreign students studying at the University of Gastronomic Sciences; moreover, the stimulating and continuous professional relation with Asian, African, American and Latino-American colleagues; and finally, my readings on the cultural conception of food in the other continents.

We have tried to highlight this approach especially in the chapter dedicated to food problems considering the situations related to food and agriculture which are different in various parts of the world for the historical, cultural or traditional point of view. The aim of this book is to present and investigate the main issues affecting food, and it could be considered a premise for studies and research comparing food cultures of the five continents in order to point out differences and recognise – if existing – categories, concepts, traditions and common practices. I think it will be interesting in the near future to develop a work of comparison and synthesis like that, with colleagues that in various parts of the world deal with food and nutrition.

In the previous paragraphs our holistic approach to food and the importance of its role in the contemporary society have been presented in order to give a helpful key in understanding the social and cultural phenomena and the changes occurring. In this perspective the method to be followed is the ecological approach to the topic described before, especially considering the relation between human beings and other living beings and between man and nature. Notwithstanding traditional Western culture has long been anthropocentric, the effects – sometimes tragic – of this instrumental and functionalist approach have spread a new way of thinking and a more balanced view of the relation with the nature. Individuals have acquired more awareness both that ecosystems are founded on the natural harmony of their elements and that man has a special responsibility in keeping and reinforcing their stability. The world of food is fully involved in this process, starting from foodstuffs used as nourishment. The use of water and energy consumption for breeding, the consumption of agricultural soil for cultivation and the presence of animals are activities to be practised in respect of the ecosystem. Food choices are different: omnivores, vegetarians, vegans, but they all conceive the relation with food and nature. Aside from these choices, all respectable, it seems to have gradually become popular the idea that the best life quality can be achieved by considering also the animals’ well-being, the care of landscape, the recovery of products’ seasonality. The Earth and countryside too are recovering their value as a primary source of life and nourishment, in a renewed relation with land and environment.

Along with the ecological approach introduced above, it is interesting to highlight the last but not the least important method of food analysis, which focuses on the purely social aspect of food. It has been said that man not only nourishes himself but he is also used to eat with others, often sharing food. Eating together is an act of sociality, and it represents something original in human experience: there is no other action where people join in doing a daily and natural action. It is still unclear the reason why human beings prefer to eat together. Enjoying a meal in solitude is not considered pleasant by a large majority of individuals. Besides, cooking is considered a community action. The more valid reason is that eating causes pleasant feelings and emotions we want to share with someone. The pleasure, to be as such, has to be shared because it is not possible to be happy alone.

The table is an aspect of human life shared by all the individuals, even if over the centuries the social differences have caused division and established hierarchies. In contemporary society the time dedicated to meals has taken a decisive role in the practices of socialisation. Lunch is often the occasion to establish contacts, close deals, take delicate decisions. Dinner instead is the privileged context for love affairs and friendship, or to relax after the work day. In Chapter 2 it will be explored as this can cause different behaviours in food choices.

1.2 The structure of the book

The description of the methodological criteria used in this book demonstrates the centrality of food in our society. Food and nutrition deal with such different fields, situations and problems at individual and social, local and global, economic and political levels. Our aim is to analyse the most relevant aspects of food from the social and cultural point of view, paying particular attention to consumption patterns. This introductory chapter is dedicated to the description of the most relevant sociological and anthropological theories regarding the relationship between food and consumption, in the belief that it is important to begin our investigation from what has been authoritatively argued before us. The particular attention to the consumption-oriented literature is determined by the intention to treat an area of studies not at all explored yet, while other sectors of food culture were exhaustively studied. The relationship that food has with the trends of consumption is very important for understanding and defining the characteristics and the perspectives of food culture.

The second chapter delves into the relationship between food culture and society, describing the antinomies that characterise the world of food. Social phenomena are actually contradictory, because some aspects confirm the centrality assumed by food, as the fame achieved by chefs and the spread of cooking schools, while others seem to indicate a different “reality,” such as the decrease of food consumption and the decrease of time spent cooking.

In order to have a better understanding of the situation, all the most significant purchasing and consumption practices will be analysed, both those typical of the majority of the population and those of the growing minority groups. In this analysis, the concepts of place and time related to food will be taken into consideration as important variables in determining the consumption behaviour.

The economic and social crisis that has touched mainly the West has caused many effects at the cultural level and to the relation between consumers and food/nutrition. As a consequence, in Chapter 3 the possible ways out of the economic crisis will be considered, according to several thought patterns and theories. In this perspective the sociological investigation about consumption will be treated, with particular attention to the theories of the serene degrowth (Latouche, 2004, 2011) and the post-growth society (Fabris, 2010). The two authors have studied the consumer motivation and the changes caused by the crisis, presenting models of society different from the traditional capitalist one, so that Latouche’s model can be defined revolutionary and Fabris’s reformist. Finally we try to imagine a different model of consumer society too, based on the idea of life quality: this is part of the conception of slow food, i.e., a qualitative and authentic way of approaching food, at all levels.

Food consumption is also influenced by a series of issues that affect both individuals, and people and cultures of the different parts of the world (Chapter 4). The discussion will merit attention to phenomena that have dramatic implications: the diseases related to food, such as obesity, anorexia and bulimia; malnutrition and hunger, involving more than 800 million people; the waste food, a real paradox of the global world; the land grabbing, i.e., the farmers of the poorest countries are deprived of land and income. These are very di...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title
• 1  Introduction
• 2  Food Culture and Society
• 3  Crisis and the New Patterns of Food Consumption
• 4  Problematics of Food
• 5  Food, Environment and Quality of Life
• Bibliography
• Index