Notes
Introduction
1 See Pippa Norris, Ferran MartĂnez i Coma, Alessandro Nai, and Max Grömping, The Year in Elections, 2014 (Sydney: The Electoral Integrity Project, University of Sydney, 2015).
2 Pippa Norris, Richard Frank, and Ferran Martinez i Coma, âContentious Elections: From Votes to Violence,â in Contentious Elections: From Ballots to Barricades, ed. Frank Norris and Ferran Martinez i Coma (New York: Routledge, 2015).
I. Challenges of Electoral Integrity during the 2016 US Elections
1 See, for example, Bruce E. Cain, Todd Donovan, and C. J. Tolbert, Democracy in the States: Experimentation in Election Reform (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008); Brian L. Fife, Reforming the Electoral Process in America (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010); Michael J. Hanmer, Discount Voting: Voter Registration Reforms and Their Effects (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Martha Kropf and David C. Kimball, Helping America Vote: The Limits of Election Reform (New York: Routledge, 2011); R. Michael Alvarez, Lonna Atkeson, and Thad E. Hall, eds., Confirming Elections: Creating Confidence and Integrity through Election Auditing (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Barry C. Burden and Charles Stewart III, eds., The Measure of American Elections (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); R. Michael Alvarez and Bernard Grofman, Election Administration in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
2 Richard L. Hasen, The Voting Wars: From Florida 2000 to the Next Election Meltdown (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012).
3 Paul Gronke, Eva Galanes-Rosenbaum, and Peter A. Miller, âConvenience Voting,â Annual Review of Political Science 11 (2008): 437â455. It should be noted that convenience voting facilities for citizens differ from reforms modernizing electoral procedures, which are designed to make electoral administration easier for managers, such as the use of electronic machines rather than paper ballots.
4 Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Voting (New York: Harper, 1957).
5 http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-id.aspx. For details, see Pippa Norris, Strengthening Electoral Integrity (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2017, forthcoming), chapter 9.
6 Lorraine Carol Minnite, The Myth of Voter Fraud (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2010); John S. Ahlquist, Kenneth R. Mayer, and Simon Jackman, âAlien Abduction and Voter Impersonation in the 2012 U.S. General Election: Evidence from a Survey List Experiment,â Election Law Journal 13, no. 4 (2014): 460â475.
7 https://www.brennancenter.org/election-2016-controversies.
8 http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-id-history.aspx.
9 http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/electronic-or-online-voter-registration.aspx; Electoral Assistance Commission, The 2014 EAC Election Administration and Voting Survey Comprehensive Report (2015), http://www.eac.gov/research/election_administration_and_voting_survey.aspx.
10 See, for example, Louis Massicotte, Andre Blais, and Antoine Yoshinaka, Establishing the Rules of the Game (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004).
11 Electoral Assistance Commission, The 2014 EAC Election Administration and Voting Survey Comprehensive Report (2015), http://www.eac.gov/research/election_administration_and_voting_survey.aspx.
12 Barry C. Burden, David T. Canon, Kenneth R. Mayer, and Donald P. Moynihan, âElection Laws, Mobilization, and Turnout: The Unanticipated Consequences of Election Reform,â American Journal of Political Science 58, no. 1 (2014): 95â109.
13 Lonna Rae Atkeson, R. Michael Alvarez, and Thad E. Hall et al., âBalancing Fraud Prevention and Electoral Participation: Attitudes toward Voter Identification,â Social Science Quarterly 95, no. 5 (2014): 1381â1398.
14 Debate about the extent of electoral fraud is heated. Thus some estimates find incidents of electoral fraud in recent US elections to be trivial or nonexistent. See, for example, Minnite, The Myth of Voter Fraud. Others counter that the threats are real. See, for example, Jesse T. Richman, Gulshan A. Chattha, and David C. Earnest, âDo Non-citizens Vote in US Elections?â Electoral Studies 36 (2014): 149â157.
15 Sari Horwitz, âHow North Carolina Became the Epicenter of the Voting Rights Battle,â Washington Post, April 26, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/how-north-carolina-became-the-epicenter-of-the-voting-rights-battle/2016/04/26/af05c5a8-0bcb-11e6-8ab8-9ad050f76d7d_story.html.
16 http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/22/us/politics/donald-trump-a-rigged-election-and-the-politics-of-race.html?_r=0.
17 http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/policies-for-election-observers.aspx.
18 Justin Levitt, The Truth about Voter Fraud (New York: Brennan Center for Justice 2007); https://www.brennancenter.org/issues/voter-fraud.
19 Sami Edge, âNo Voter Fraud Isnât a Persistent Problem.â Washington Post, September 1, 2012, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/09/01/voter-fraud-is-not-a-persistent-problem/?tid=a_inl&utm_term=.0ab16ed5cf7b.
20 Gallup Polls, August 15â16 2016. âAbout Six in 10 Confident in Accuracy of US Vote Count,â http://www.gallup.com/poll/195371/six-confident-accuracy-vote-count.aspx?g_source=Politics&g_medium=newsfeed&g_campaign=tiles.
21 Emily Guskin and Scott Clement, âPoll: Nearly Half of Americans Say that Voter Fraud Occurs Often,â Washington Post, September 15, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/09/15/poll-nearly-half-of-americans-say-voter-fraud-occurs-often.
22 Emily Beaulieu, âFrom Voter ID to Party ID: How Political Parties Affect Perceptions of Election Fraud in the US,â Electoral Studies 35 (2014): 24â32.
23 http://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/nsa-chief-potential-russian-hacking-u-s-elections-concern-n647491.
24 Ben Wofford, âHow to Hack an Elec...