Environmental Science and International Politics

Acid Rain in Europe, 1979-1989, and Climate Change in Copenhagen, 2009

David E. Henderson,Susan K. Henderson

• Publisher: The University of North Carolina Press
• Year: 2018
• ISBN:
  9781469640303
• Topic: Scienze biologiche
• Subtopic: Scienze ambientali

Environmental Science and International Politics features two reacting games in one volume, immersing students in the complex process of negotiating international treaties to control environmental pollution. The issues are similar in all the modules; environmental justice, national sovereignty, and the inherent uncertainty of the costs and benefits of pollution control. Students also must understand the basic science of each problem and possible solutions. Acid Rain in Europe, 1979-1989 covers the negotiation of the Long Range Transport Pollution treaty. This was the first ever international pollution control treaty and remains at the forefront of addressing European pollution. This game can be used in a variety of ways and to examine either sulfur dioxide pollution, nitrogen oxide pollution, or both. This game includes summaries of a number of relevant technical articles to support student arguments. Students must deal with the limitations of national resources as they decide how much of their limited money to spend. Climate Change in Copenhagen, 2009 covers the negotiations at the Conference of Parties 15 meeting that was attended by a large number of national leaders. The game also includes representatives of non-government organizations and the press. Students wrestle with the need to work within conflicting limits set by their governments.

Acid Rain in Europe, 1979–1989

DAVID E. HENDERSON AND SUSAN K. HENDERSON

Contents

1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Overview

Vignette: An Evening in Geneva

Time Line

Historical and Scientific Context

Air Pollution and Acid Rain

The Problem of Acid Precipitation

Effects of Acid Precipitation on the Ecosystem

Effects of Acid Precipitation on Infrastructure

International Aspects of Acid Rain

The Science of Acid Precipitation

Acids and Bases

The pH Scale

pH and Total Acidity

Parts per Million

How Does Rain Become Acidic?

What Can Be Done about Acid Rain?

The Formation of the EU and Transnational Negotiations

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

European Economic Community

UN Economic Commission for Europe

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

Nature of International Agreements

Tools of Public Policy

Command and Control

Polluter Pays

Cap and Trade

Glossary and Guide to Abbreviations

2. THE GAME

Major Issues for Debate

Framing the Argument

Rules and Procedures

Role of Money in the Game

Winning the Game

Outline of the Game

Setup Sessions

Game Sessions

Game Sessions 1 and 2: 1979 Geneva

Game Sessions 3 and 4: 1985 Helsinki

Game Sessions 5 and 6: 1988 Sophia

Debriefing: Postmortem

Writing Assignments for the Game

Counterfactual Aspects of the Game

3. ROLES AND FACTIONS

Public Knowledge about the Participating Countries in 1979

Faction 1: Major Industrialized Nations Opposed to a Strong Treaty

Faction 2: Countries Seeking a Strong Treaty

Faction 3: Eastern European Nations

Faction 4: Less Developed Nations

4. CORE TEXTS AND SUPPLEMENTAL READINGS

Geneva Conference News

Norway

Geneva Conference: Scientific Reports

Chemical Analysis

Biological Changes

Additional Reference Material

Helsinki Conference News

Helsinki Conference: Country-Specific Scientific Research

Sweden

Effects on Lakes

Soil Acidification

Ireland

Hungary

Austria

West Germany

Norway and Great Britain

France

Italy

Eastern Europe

Sophia Conference News

Sophia Conference: Technical Background

The Science of Ozone and Smog

Health Effects of Ozone

Reduction of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions

The Internal Combustion Engine

Combustion Products and Engine Parameters

Catalysts and the Catalytic Converter

Units of Concentration—ppm, ppb, µg/dL, and µg/m3

Lead Pollution and NOx

Leaded Gasoline

Lead in the Environment

Lead and Health

Readings on Lead

Optional Texts on Ecology

Websites with Environmental Data

Bibliography

Acknowledgments

Appendix 1. Introduction to Environmental Philosophy

Appendix 2. Introduction to Environmental Economics

Appendix 3. Using Numbers to Make Arguments

Appendix 4. Study Questions for Reading Assignments

Questions on Environmental Philosophy

Questions on Lovelock’s Gaia Hypothesis

Figures and Tables

FIGURES

1. Effect of pH on Various Species in Lakes / 19

2. The pH Scale / 23

3. Effect of pH on Percentage of Fishless Lakes in Norway / 49

4. Sulfate Concentration and Percentage of Fishless Lakes in Norway / 50

5. The pH History in Round Loch of Glenhead Using a Logarithmic (pH) Scale / 60

6. The pH History in Round Loch of Glenhead Using a Linear Concentration Scale (Micromolar) / 60

7. Long Time Scale pH Changes in Lake Gardsohn / 64

8. Recent Changes in pH in Lake Gardsohn / 64

9. Snow and Rain Sampling Sites in Austria / 68

10. Snow Data as a Function of Altitude / 69

11. The pH Data for Sampling Sites near the Austrian Border / 70

12. Sulfate Concentration in Sampling Sites near the Austrian Border / 71

13. Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations in Great Britain / 75

14. The pH of Rain in Great Britain, 1978–1980 / 75

15. Acidification of Lakes in Norway / 78

16. Acidification of Lakes in Sweden / 79

17. Seasonal Variation in Acid Rain in Italy / 80

18. Diagram of the Processes Involved in the Formation of Ozone and Smog / 88

19. Ozone Data for Three Monitoring Stations / 89

20. Relationship between Ozone Concentration and Daily Death Rates in Twenty-Three European Cities / 90

21. Diagram of a Four-Cycle Internal Combustion Engine / 93

22. Tuning a Carburetor for Optimum Emissions and Performance / 95

23. The Catalytic Converter / 96

24. World Lead Production during the Past 5,500 Years / 100

25. Example of Game Simulator Tool / 105

TABLES

1. International Sulfur Transport / 21

2. National Sulfur Emissions, Population, Total Energy Use, and GDP / 22

3. Example of Costs of Emission Reductions Provided to Each Country / 37

4. Victory Point Scenarios for Money Spent on Treaty / 38

5. Cost of Nuclear and Alternative Energy Sources / 48

6. Annual Operating Cost for 1 Gigajoule of Energy in the United Kingdom, 1974 / 49

7. Sources of Soil Acidification by Soil Type / 65

8. Deposition of Sulfur in Three Countries / 66

9. Concentration of Pollutants Measured in Air Samples / 67

10. Wet and Dry Deposition of Sulfate and Nitrate / 68

11. Chemical Properties and Fish Population in Southern Norway / 73

12. Change in Runoff Ions from 1892 to 1976 / 81

13. Total Deposition of Sulfate and Nitrate in Four Basins / 81

14. Comparison of Streams in Four Basins / 82

15. NOx Pollution for 1985–1986 / 92

16. Comparison of Prehistoric and Modern Lead Exposure per Person / 101

17. Production and Emission of Lead / 102

18. Lead Ingestion in the United States in 1970s / 102

19. Cost Comparison for Electric Lights over Thirty Years / 120

1

Historical Background

OVERVIEW

This is a reacting game. Reacting games use complex role-play to teach about important moments in history. This game is set in a series of conferences sponsored by the United Nations (UN) that began in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1979 and continued for over a decade. The goal is to negotiate a treaty governing air pollutants transported across international borders within Europe. The game includes negotiations that followed in Helsinki, Finland, in 1984 and in Sophia, Bulgaria, in 1987. The result of these negotiations was the Long Range Transport Air Pollution Treaty, which continues in Europe to the present day.

The events that unfold in this game occur agai...