Chapter 1
Continuous and Digital Images
To begin our journey through a vast land of image processing and analysis, it is natural to define main objects of interest: images of realistic or artificial objects and maps of regions or features exemplified in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1Realistic urban scene and a computed tomographic chest slice with its region map (black/white encoding of lung/background labels).
What will you find here? This chapter presents basic notions associated with continuous images and maps, as well as with their discrete (digital) analogues. Section 1.1 will detail spatial resolution of digitisation (sampling), the smallest discrete elements (points), called pixels in 2D or voxels in 3D digital images, and point-wise scalar or vectorial signals, in particular, grey values and colours in the images or region labels and numerical feature values in the maps.
Sections 1.2 and 1.3 describe a few features, or quantitative descriptors of global (image-wide) or local (point- and window-wide) signal behaviour. The descriptors include global brightness and contrast, as well as global or local statistical properties, called simply statistics, of signal co-occurrences in pixel or voxel k-tuples. The size, k, and spatial shapes of these signal patterns are mostly prescribed, but generally might depend on the signals. The first-order statistics follow from a global or local grey level histogram (GLH) and its cumulative histogram (CH). The second-order statistics follow from grey level difference or co-occurrence histograms (GLDH or GLCH, respectively) characterising prescribed or adaptively chosen signal pairs. This primer will consider only most common first- and second-order statistics, as well as briefly outlining popular higher-order ones, called local binary and ternary patterns (LBPs and LTPs).
Human vision is of great importance in perceiving, describing, and understanding the surrounding world. Our eyes receive electromagnetic waves reflected from or emitted by an observed (and thus called optical) spatial surface. The visible light has wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7 μm (micrometers, or microns), sensed as colours from violet to red, respectively. Special optical sensors help to visualise certain ranges of ultraviolet (UV: 0.01 – 0.4 μm) and infrared light (IR: 0.7–1,000 μm). By various estimates, up to 35–50% of the human brain participate, in one way or another, in processing and analysing optical data acquired by multiple light receptors (cones and rods) in retinas of both eyes.
The eyes are constantly scanning their fields of view using rapid instinctive and slower deliberate movements, guided by observation goals. Sequences of retinal neural signals encoding the data acquired are compressed firstly in the retinas and then secondly by other vision-related parts of the brain in order to be combined at each time instant into a stable continuous image of the currently observed three-dimensional (3D) scene. The image perceived may be considered similar in many aspects to a central projection of the observed optical surfaces onto a 2D plane.
Older photo and cinematographic cameras with light-sensitive films produced continuous images with a continuous range of optical signals (grey shades or colours) encoding the perceived light. A majority of other imaging tools, including modern digital photo cameras and even the human eye retina (due to its limited spatial, intensity, and colour resolution), capture a finite set of isolated 2D image elements and mostly distinguish among a finite number of element-wise shades or colours.
Special imaging devices can visualise inner structures of realistic 3D objects, such as, e.g., human bodies, industrial parts, or soil samples to mention only a few, with the aid of penetrating magnetic fields or electromagnetic rays with wavelengths below 0.01 μm (X-rays). The latter are used in conventional X-ray radioscopy and computed tomography (CT), whereas the combination of strong static and pulsing magnetic fields enable magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Radioscopic 2D images encode integral attenuations of multiple X-rays passing through an object, and 3D CT images or MRI encode point-...