Learning Styles and Inclusion

Gavin Reid

• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Year: 2005
• Print ISBN: 9781412910644, 9781412910637
• eBook ISBN: 9781446231241
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Education
• Subtopic: Inclusive Education

?[Gavin Reid] provides some useful links to websites devoted to different approaches. Some of the ideas relating to specific areas of the curriculum, for example, the suggested approaches to the teaching of modern languages, are likely to be particularly valuable. Reid also outlines strategies using learning styles for pupils with learning differences, including attention disorders, dyslexia, developmental co-ordination difficulties, number difficulties, and those on the autistic spectrum? - Times Educational Supplement Extra for Special Needs

`We have been lucky enough to hear Gavin speak twice in the last year and those of you who have also heard him will know that he is at the cutting edge of his field. This book really encompasses those areas that are particularly topical and the "buzz" words on everyone?s lips! This book clearly sets out "who" is involved in inclusion and "what" is actually meant by learning styles. Gavin not only offers practical strategies but also suggests how "old hands" could vary their teaching styles to appeal to all types of learners.

Therefore we feel this book is for the main stream teacher as well as the specialist and, if this is a target area for your school, this book might be a valuable addition to your bookshelf? - SATIPS

`In this book, Gavin Reid has grasped the nettle (of inclusion) with both hands and provided a text that is full of common sense and practical suggestions as to how the mainstream teacher can draw upon recent psychological theory and research to enhance the learning of all children. He jumps on no bandwagons but draws judiciously from a wide range of approaches to assessing learning styles and links what can be learned about groups and individuals from such techniques to helpful classroom practice? - Professor Bob Burden, School of Education and Lifelong Learning, University of Exeter

`Gavin Reid is that rare professional who not only explains how and why children learn best, but also suggests a myriad of practical strategies to help them. I highly recommend this book for everyone from undergraduates to "old hands" working toward successful inclusion.

Parents, too, will profit from Dr. Reid?s wise and comprehensive experience? - Jane M. Healy, Ph.D., Educational Psychologist and Author of "Your Child?s Growing Mind: Brain Development and Learning from Birth to Adolescence." 3rd Edition. NY: Broadway Books, 2004.

Drawing on his considerable experience as a teacher, educational psychologist, lecturer and author, Gavin Reid illustrates how to assess pupils? different learning styles and how to vary your teaching style to appeal to all types of learners, including disaffected students and those with special educational needs.

This book provides an overview of the different stages in the learning cycle; describes the differences between learners; and emphasizes the role the classroom environment and different teaching styles play in children?s ability to learn. Readers will see how an understanding of learning styles can be used to encourage and promote good inclusive practice.

Ideas for assessment of learning styles and examples of different teaching styles will prove invaluable to class teachers, trainee teachers, SENCOs, LEA advisers; NQTs and NQT advisers and school management

PART 1

HOW CHILDREN LEARN

CHAPTER 1

Learning Models and the Learning Cycle

Outline of chapter and key points

This chapter

• provides an overview of the different stages in the learning cycle – input, cognition and output
• examines the learning needs of students
• discusses factors relating to learning models
• discusses the rationale for learning styles and inclusion.

Key points

• Distinction between learning and performance – they are not the same.
• The process of learning is important.
• It is important to identify the student’s learning needs.
• One of the goals of learning is to help the student achieve autonomy in learning.
• It is crucial to ensure that the learner is presented with tasks within their Zone of Proximal Development.
• This can be achieved through the process called scaffolding.
• Awareness of learning theories such as behaviourism, cognitive theories and metacognitive theories can enhance understanding of the learning process.
• A positive self-esteem is crucial for successful learning.
• Inclusion is a process that needs to begin as early as possible and must embrace the whole community.

Education is about learning; qualifications are by-products of that learning. Yet often the reverse is the case. A school may pride itself by referring to the number of students obtaining high grades in national examinations, but that in itself is not evidence that these students have become effective and autonomous learners. Learning is a science (and an art), and yet aspects relating to how children learn, and how learning can be used in school, beyond school and in adulthood are often relegated to a less important role in education today. MacGilchrist et al. (2004) distinguish between learning and performance. In this context learning relates to thinking and resolving problems, while performance relates to achievement. But the skills needed for flexibility in learning and in resolving new problems may not always be evident, even among learners who have performed well. It might be suggested that performance is about the ‘here and now’ while learning is about the past, present and the future. In other words, effective learning will provide the learner with skills to resolve problems in new and future learning based on their previous learning experiences.

Effective learning has much to do with risk-taking. Developing new skills and new learning involves some risk on the part of the learner. Many learners are unwilling or unable to take these risks and this can result in a negative and static pattern in their learning behaviours. Watkins et al. (2002) suggest that this can form part of the learner’s ‘self-beliefs’ on their learning abilities. They distinguish between a ‘learning orientation’ and a ‘performance orientation’ and suggest that students with a ‘learning orientation’ have a belief in their ability to improve and learn, have a preference for challenging tasks and develop problem-solving skills and skills in self-instruction when engaged in a task. On the other hand, a ‘performance orientation’ involves a need to be judged by performances, a satisfaction from doing better than others, and when the task is difficult there may be a tendency to self-evaluate negatively. Watkins et al. suggest that a ‘learning orientation’ is represented by a positive pattern while a ‘performance orientation’ can be represented by a negative pattern. The problem for schools and for learners in relation to a ‘performance orientation’ is that it will only be successful if the learner can actually succeed with the task. It may not be successful in dealing with new and challenging learning, unless the learner has acquired the learning skills to utilise previous learning (metacognitive skills) and to resolve the challenges inherent in new learning. This has considerable implications for learners with any form of special educational need. Often children with such needs may not have the same degree of versatility and flexibility in learning as some other children. For them it is crucial to consider the learning process and to ensure that they gain maximum benefit from this process. This theme will be developed in Chapter 2.

The performance orientation discussed by Watkins et al. underpins many aspects of the school curriculum and the examination system. The main objective within a ‘content-driven curriculum’ appears to be the need to obtain paper qualifications. This can relegate the learning orientation to a lesser role. In this case learning becomes a product and not a process. It is crucial, however, to consider the process of learning as well as the product, and to give serious consideration to how children learn and, specifically, how they can learn more effectively.

This chapter will therefore provide some insights into how children learn from both theoretical and practical perspectives and provide an overview of the different stages in the learning cycle – input, cognition and output. These factors will be set against the background literature on the science of learning and this will be related to classroom practice.

Learning theory – some issues

There are many theoretical perspectives on how children learn and there are many complementary and sometimes conflicting views on learning strategies. There are however some points of general importance and consensus. These include the following:

• learning is a process
• learning requires a period of consolidation
• learning is more effective when the content is familiar
• using the material to be learnt in different contexts and over time enhances the chances of retention and understanding
• intrinsic (within child) factors as well as extrinsic (environmental) factors can influence learning
• learning is life-long.

Yet despite these general points there are many areas of uncertainty and controversy about learning. These include for example the view that:

• specific styles are more effective for certain types of learning
• each person has their own style – their own ‘learning fingerprint’
• learning occurs in age-related stages
• the role of environment is less important than the individual’s cognitive ability to learn
• learning should be differentiated for children of differing abilities
• intelligence is closely related to ability to learn.

The points above are controversial and each has been the subject of various comment and investigation by researchers and by practitioners. This chapter, in providing an overview of the learning process, will comment on these points.

Learning needs

Before effective learning can take place it is necessary for the learner to:

• read the requirements of the task
• understand the task/information being presented
• recognise what the task, or the information is suggesting
• identify the key points in the task/information
• implement the task/use the information
• become ‘efficient’ in accessing the information and carrying out the task
• be able to transfer the new learning to other learning tasks.

In the identification and assessment process that takes place in classrooms it is important to focus not necessarily on the learning difficulties, but the learning needs. Often the assessment of learning difficulties takes place outside of the context of the curriculum and sometimes the classroom. It is crucial that the purpose of any assessment is seen in terms of identifying learner’s needs and these should be seen in conjunction with the task that is to be undertaken. The learner therefore may have difficulty in one or all of the key points indicated above. An assessment therefore can focus on the key issues of reading, understanding, recognising, identifying, implementing, skill development and independence in learning and transferring learning. The situation can arise where the learner may be able to understand the task, but not be able to identify the key points, or transfer the learning that has been acquired to new learning. The learning needs that stem from this would mean that the focus of teaching would need to be on the identification of key points, summarising information and how this can be used in other contexts and subjects. The key issue is that the identification of learning needs must always be undertaken within the context of the task, focusing on the student’s learning experiences with that task.

Efficient and autonomous learning

The autonomous stage of learning is extremely important and can be seen as a measure of how successfully the individual has understood the information that has been learnt. Fitts and Posner (1967) suggest that the autonomous stage of learning occurs only after extensive practice. This practice involves the learner using the information and through this, he/she develops ‘automaticity’ in undertaking the task. At this autonomous stage the learner often loses conscious awareness of how the task is done and it is carried out without too much conscious thought. An example would be unlocking one’s house door with a key. This task can be carried out many thousands of times, and will be done autonomously without giving too much thought to it. If a person was given the key to a friend’s house with a different type of lock, however, then he/she would need to give at least some thought on how to insert and use the key. That person would still have the ‘learnt skill’ of using a key, but because of the differences in locks he/she may have to consciously focus more when unlocking the door. The important point is that because the individual has automaticity in using a key, he/she is able to transfer these skills to a less familiar situation. Competent learners therefore have the ability to transfer skills to new learning situations. A crucial index of learning achievement is the extent of the individual’s ability to transfer learnt skills.

Nicolson and Fawcett (2004) suggest that this highlights the difference between ‘controlled processing’, which requires attentional control and uses up working memory capacity, and ‘automatic processing, which, once learned in long-term memory, operates independently of the individual’s control and uses no working memory resources. Because the learner has control over the process, the learner can be coached and trained to use this process more effectively. Almost everyone has the potential to be trained to become an efficient learner. This is one of the principal messages of this book and suggests that focusing on the learning process can help the individual gain more control over the learning experience and adopt and adapt the strategies, styles and techniques with which he/she feels most comfortable.

Conditions for learning

It is important to give some thought to the actual conditions that can enhance learning. Environmental factors are important and these will be discussed later in this and in subsequent chapters. Other conditions can include the learner’s mood, self-esteem, motivation, teaching style, materials and supports available and whether the task, or the information, is within the grasp of the learner, given his/her current level of knowledge in the area. A number of theorists have put forward ideas on the conditions for enhancing learning. Among the most well known of these ideas in terms of education is Vygotsky’s ‘Zone of Proximal Development’. The factors that can have an effect on learning are shown below.

Factors that condition learning

• environment
• mood
• self-esteem
• motivation
• teaching style
• learning style
• task/task expectations
• materials
• supports.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky (1962, 1978) suggested that there can be a significant difference, at any stage in learning, between what a learner can achieve unaided, compared to the situation where there is an instructor/teacher present and interacting with the learner. Vygotsky suggested that at any moment there are some skills/knowledge that are attainable, given the learner’s current knowledge at that time. At the same time some skills/knowledge cannot be accessed by the learner because he/she is not at a stage of preparedness to understand/absorb/implement these new skills or knowledge. The set of skills that are currently attainable according to Vygotsky can be described as the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (ZPD). This means that one of the key aspects of effective teaching is to ensure that the learner is presented with tasks within his/her ZPD.

Developing ZPD

For teachers the crucial question is how a child’s ZPD can be developed and extended so that new information can be absorbed and then located within the ZPD. One of the starting points is to ensure that learners are introduced to the task so that they have a clear understanding of what the task is about. Importantly the teacher needs to be aware of the learner’s previous knowledge within the area to be tackled. One way to obtain this is through the procedur...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Dedication
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Part 1 How Children Learn
• Part 2 Learning Styles
• Part 3 Inclusion
• Part 4 Effective Learning
• Appendix – Books, Resources and Information
• Glossary
• Reference
• Index