Genetic Modification and Food Quality

A Down to Earth Analysis

Robert Blair, Joe M. Regenstein

• Publisher: Wiley
• Year: 2015
• Print ISBN:
  9781118756416
• Edition: 1
• eBook ISBN:
  9781118823613
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Food Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

The development of recombinant DNA methods has changed the face of the food industry over the last 50 years. Crops which have been genetically modified are being cultivated in more and more countries and this process is likely to accelerate as desirable traits are identified and transferred to appropriate organisms, and they are cleared by the regulatory authorities. However, the technique has its critics who claim that modification of the genome of the plant (or animal) in this way may pose unknown and unacceptable risks to the human consumer. Genetic Modification and Food Quality: A Down to Earth Analysis is the first comprehensive text on how GM production methods influence the quality of foods and feeds, based on a complete and unbiased assessment of the scientific findings. It presents a balanced analysis of the benefits and drawbacks of gene-modified food sources in the human diet. Chapters approach the topic with regard to different food types such as cereal grains, oilseed crops, vegetables, fish and animal products. Assessing the nutritive value as well as the health and safety of GMO foods, this book is a reference for anyone working in the food production industry and will also be of an interest to NGOs, trade associations and consumers who are looking for an objective, balanced study of this contentious issue.

CHAPTER 1
Introduction

It is time to reopen the debate about GM crops in the UK but this time based on scientific facts and analysis. We need to consider what the science has to say about risks and benefits, uncoloured by commercial interests and ideological opinion. It is not acceptable if we deny the world’s poorest access to ways that could help their food security, if that denial is based on fashion and ill-informed opinion rather than good science.

Sir Paul Nurse, Royal Society – Richard Dimbleby Lecture, February 2012

After World War II there was a rapid expansion in food production, supported by advances in agricultural science. This led to an abundance of food in the developed countries, but not in all developing countries. The world population is expected to increase from the current 6.7 billion to 9 billion by 2050. To accommodate the increased demand for food, it has been estimated that world agricultural production needs to increase 50% by 2030 (Royal Society 2009).

As outlined by Ronald (2011) the amount of arable land is limited and is being reduced due to urbanisation, salinisation, desertification and environmental degradation. Another challenge is that water systems are under severe strain in many parts of the world. Thus, increased food production must largely take place on a diminishing land area while using fewer resources. Compounding the challenges are the predicted effects of climate change, limiting crop production and exposing crops to increased damage from pests and disease.

As a result several strategies are being adopted to address these issues, including the improvement of agricultural crops using genetic modification (GM). The first GM (transgenic) crops for food and feed use were introduced in 1996. Later the technique was extended to animals, although the development of superior strains and breeds of animals at this time is still based mainly on traditional selective breeding and cross-breeding techniques.

Genetic modification (GM) can be defined as the manipulation of an organism’s genes by introducing, eliminating or rearranging specific genes using the methods of modern molecular biology, particularly those techniques referred to as recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA) techniques. This method uses laboratory techniques to introduce specific changes into the genetic code located within the cells so that the succeeding generations possess desired features.

In some cases the inserted genes are derived from another species, in others the genetic change is made by using genes found within the same species or a closely related species. For example, it became possible for the gene responsible for drought tolerance to be identified in one plant, isolated and removed, and inserted into a different plant. The genetically-modified plant then gains drought tolerance as well, and this attribute is passed down to succeeding generations. It also became possible for genes from non-plant organisms to be used with plants. The best known example of this is the use of B.t. genes in maize and other crops. B.t. (Bacillus thuringiensis), is a naturally occurring bacterium that produces proteins that are lethal to insect larvae. B.t. protein genes can be transferred into maize, enabling the crop to develop a resistance against insects such as the European corn borer and thus reducing or avoiding the need for spraying with insecticide.

In general, GM has been used to introduce specific traits into plants, such as resistance to insect attack, resistance to virus diseases and tolerance to herbicides.

According to James (2014) the global biotech crop hectarage has increased from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to over 175 million hectares in 2013, the main crops being maize, soyabeans, rapeseed (canola) and cottonseed. During this 18-year period, more than a 100-fold increase of commercial biotech crop hectarage has been reported. The United States continues to lead global biotech crop plantings at 70.1 million hectares or 40% of total global hectares, but according to the report, more than 90% of farmers (more than 16.5 million) planting biotech crops are small and resource-poor. Of the countries planting biotech crops in 2013, 8 were industrial countries and 19 were developing countries. For the second year in a row, developing countries planted more hectares of biotech crops than industrialised countries. By 2015, it is predicted that more than 120 GM crops (including potatoes and rice) will be cultivated worldwide, with the number of countries growing GM crops and the area planted doubling between 2006 and 2015 (James, 2010).

Although GM has been shown to have important applications with food crops (and animals), the technique is still controversial and continues to raise concerns in several quarters. The main concern is whether genetic modification using rDNA techniques results in harmful attributes in the altered organism, such as allergenicity. A second main concern is whether the nutritional value of the food product is the same.

Food derived from mutation breeding is widely used and accepted since induced mutagenesis is considered a conventional breeding technique. Mutations, defined as any change in the base sequence of DNA, can either occur spontaneously or be induced, and both methods have produced new crop varieties. Crop plants account for 75% of released mutagenic species. In the USA many varieties have been developed using induced mutagenesis, such as lettuce, beans, grapefruit, rice, oats and wheat. Organic farming systems, at least in the USA, permit food from mutated varieties to be sold as organic.

GM technology differs from mutagenesis in that it involves insertion of an alien gene or genes, whereas mutagenesis results in a realignment of the genes contained within the genome of an organism. Mutagenesis also has a longer history of use, although it does involve the use of mutagenic agents such as ionising irradiation. The food regulations in some countries require that only new food products derived using GM techniques, and not mutagenesis, are subject to scientific assessment before being approved for food or feed use. Consequently our review does not include the quality and safety of food products developed by mutagenesis.

Plants and animals may be reproduced by cloning. This technique is not considered to be genetic modification since it does not involve any change in the genetic makeup of the organism. As a result, the evidence relating to the quality and safety of food items produced by cloning is not included in our review.

This book is the first comprehensive text on how GM production methods influence the quality of foods and feeds, based on an unbiased assessment of the scientific findings. Assessments of the religious, ethical and environmental concerns can be found in other publications.

References

1. James, C. (2010). Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2010 ISAAA Brief No. 42-2010. ISAAA, Ithaca, NY.
2. James, C. (2014). Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2013 ISAAA Brief No. 46-2013. ISAAA, Ithaca, NY. http://www.isaaa.org/resources/publications/briefs/46/executivesummary/ (accessed 2 July 2014).
3. Ronald, P. (2011). Plant genetics, sustainable agriculture and global food security. Genetics 188: 11–20.
4. Royal Society (2009). Reaping the Benefits: Science and the Sustainable Intensification of Global Agriculture. The Royal Society, London, UK.

CHAPTER 2
International regulations

Developed countries have government agencies to ensure that the food we buy is safe. All foods, often a specific legal category that excludes other materials such as food additives, are subject to the same regulations, regardless of source and country of origin of the food. The regulations in most such countries include provisions relating to GM foods and also for feed for food-producing animals.

An important feature of the regulatory process relating to the approval of GM foods such as cereal grains is that the approved product is patented and licensed to the companies that developed them. They can then be produced either by the company owning the patent or under license by any other company approved by the patent holder.

The approval process for the assessment of GM products for use in food and feed in most (if not all) jurisdictions involves the submission of extensive supporting documentation by the applicant company to the relevant regulatory agency. Approval follows the assessment and acceptance of the submitted documentation. In many cases, the regulatory agencies will ask for additional information if the material submitted is incomplete. Some commentators dislike this process in that the supporting documentation is not made public. However, it is similar to the approval process for other patented products such as pharmaceuticals. Since the supporting documentation has to be comprehensive, it often requires disclosure of proprietary information that the government agency is required to protect. Thus, companies are confident that information provided to the government will not find its way into the hands of competitors.

Leaders in developing the appropriate regulations for GM foods and feeds are those countries in North America, the European Community (EC) and Australasia. It is clear that not all decisions on food and related issues are reached on the basis of the scientific evidence alone. These other influences can arise both in the legislative process that defines the framework for how a topic might be handled, and during the regulatory process when the broad scope of the legislation is turned into regulatory language that will be enforced by the appropriate executive branch department or ministry. And sometimes they will even arise thereafter in how the department or ministry actually enforces its own regulations.

Decisions by regulatory authorities and their advisory committees can be swayed by interpretation of safety thresholds, trade benefits and political considerations, which can be influenced by lobbying – the advocacy by different groups for positions that favour their particular interests. Organisations, including religious, charitable, sociable or consumer group, are likely to be involved in lobbying, either formally or informally.

Attempts have been made to develop harmonised international regulations with relevance to GM foods, the goal being to allow goods to move freely between all countries operating with the same rules.

For instance, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international agreement involving 168 parties, including 166 United Nations member states, Niue, and the European Union, which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms (LMO) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on biological diversity, also taking into account any risks to human health. It was adopted in 2000 and entered into force in 2003. Lebanon became the 165th signatory in 2013. Australia, the USA and Canada have yet to become signatories. The Protocol appea...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Title page
• Table of Contents
• CHAPTER 1: Introduction
• CHAPTER 2: International regulations
• CHAPTER 3: Microorganisms
• CHAPTER 4: Cereals
• CHAPTER 5: Oilseed crops
• CHAPTER 6: Fruits and vegetables
• CHAPTER 7: Fish and other animals
• CHAPTER 8: Animal products
• CHAPTER 9: Overall assessment of the safety of GM foods and feeds
• CHAPTER 10: Overall assessment of the nutritional value of GM foods and feeds
• CHAPTER 11: Addressing consumer issues
• CHAPTER 12: Overall conclusions
• Index
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• End User License Agreement