Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods

Bioactivity, Chemistry and Processing

Apostolos Kiritsakis, Fereidoon Shahidi, Apostolos Kiritsakis, Fereidoon Shahidi

• Publisher: Wiley
• Year: 2017
• Print ISBN: 9781119135319
• eBook ISBN: 9781119135333
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Technology & Engineering
• Subtopic: Food Science
• Index: Technology & Engineering

The only single-source reference on the science of olives and olive oil nutrition and health benefits

Olives and Olive Oil as Functional Foods is the first comprehensive reference on the science of olives and olive oil. While the main focus of the book is on the fruit's renowned health-sustaining properties, it also provides an in-depth coverage of a wide range of topics of vital concern to producers and researchers, including post-harvest handling, packaging, analysis, sensory evaluation, authentication, waste product utilization, global markets, and much more.

People have been cultivating olives for more than six millennia, and olives and olive oil have been celebrated in songs and legends for their life-sustaining properties since antiquity. However, it is only within the last several decades that the unique health benefits of their consumption have become the focus of concerted scientific studies. It is now known that olives and olive oil contain an abundance of phenolic antioxidants, as well as the anti-cancer compounds such as squalene and terpenoids. This centerpiece of the Mediterranean diet has been linked to a greatly reduced risk of heart disease and lowered cancer risk. Bringing together contributions from some of the world's foremost experts on the subject, this book:  

• Addresses the importance of olives and olive oil for the agricultural economy and the relevance of its bioactive components to human health
• Explores the role that olive oil plays in reducing oxidative stress in cells-a well-known risk factor in human health
• Provides important information about new findings on olive oil and lipids which reviews the latest research
• Explores topics of interest to producers, processors, and researchers, including the fruit's chemical composition, processing considerations, quality control, safety, traceability, and more 

Edited by two scientists world-renowned for their pioneering work on olive oil and human health, this book is an indispensable source of timely information and practical insights for agricultural and food scientists, nutritionists, dieticians, physicians, and all those with a professional interest in food, nutrition, and health.

1
Olive tree history and evolution

Giorgos Kostelenos and Apostolos Kiritsakis

1.1 Introduction

The olive tree, Olea, derives its name from the Greek word elea and is one of the oldest known cultivated trees in the world. It seems possible that when man first cut wild olive tree branches to kindle a fire or to use them as a weapon, he noted its potential uses as well. It is possible that when the cut branches were left partly covered on the ground, they sprouted and after a long time grew into wild olive trees. The “taming” of the wild olive and the emergence of the cultivated olive tree represent the triumph of a developing civilization (Kiritsakis, 1998). The olive tree has been cultivated for about 6000 years in the Mediterranean basin. Unquestionably, the cultivation of the olive tree began before the written word was invented.

Archaeological studies indicate that the original centers of olive cultivation were in Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Cyprus, and Crete. Paintings found in the Minoan palace of Knossos on Crete early in the 20th century show people consuming olives and using olive oil for cooking and as fuel in lamps. Huge clay containers (amphoras), used for the storage of olive oil in ancient times, exist even today in Knossos and Phestos. Many archaeologists believe that the wealth of the Cretan Minoan Kingdom (3500–1000 BC) was due to the successful trade in olive oil. Olive tree cultivation was spread from Crete to the rest of Greece. Around 600 BC, the olive tree was brought to Italy and to other Mediterranean countries from Greece or from North Africa. The olive tree was probably introduced to Spain by Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. Rome expanded olive cultivation to the entire Roman Empire under occupation. The olive tree was widely cultivated in southern Europe, and this is where the name Olea europaea comes from.

After the discovery of the North American continent, the olive tree was brought there by the Spanish settlers. Olive trees were first planted in California around 1800 AD, when seeds or cuttings were brought to San Diego by the Franciscan padres. In the earlier days, the cultivar from the San Diego Mission was the leading one in California. Despite the fact that Americans have also developed an olive oil–based cuisine, the local supply is still inadequate. In the 1930s and 1940s, many Californian olive groves were grafted to produce table olives, rather than oil olives. Thus, today California supplies only a small percentage of the olive oil consumed in the United States. Arizona is another state with commercial acreage planted with olive trees.

In modern times, the olive tree has been spread all over the world and has been successfully cultivated in many regions previously not known to have olive trees. Olive trees are now being grown commercially in about 30 countries located mainly between latitudes of 30° and 45°. However, the Mediterranean basin, which was its ancient home, has the largest number of olive trees and is still the main source of olive oil in the world.

1.2 The olive culture in the Mediterranean region

According to legend, the olive tree was a gift from the gods to the ancient Greeks. Historian Herodotus described Athens in the fifth century BC as a vast center of olive culture. Philosopher Aristotle elevated olive cultivation to a science. The olive tree was a spiritual treasure for the Greeks. Olive branches dipped in purified water were used in funeral ceremonies. A special wreath, made of olive branches wrapped with wool, was carried by singing boys during harvest festivals. The crowning wreaths (kotinos) for the winners of the ancient Olympic games, which were held at the Greek city Olympia, were made of a wild olive tree branch. Victorious athletes also received olive oil in a cup.

The olive tree was a symbol for the Romans just as it was for the Greeks and other nations. Romans and Greeks developed all aspects of olive cultivation, production, and processing. It was the Romans who invented the screw press (hydraulic press) for olive fruit processing, and that procedure remained mostly unchanged for about 2000 years. Rome realized the significance of the olive tree in Africa and boosted its cultivation there. Romans considered those who used animal fat instead of olive oil in their diet to be barbarians. Olives were considered as one of the most useful and delectable fruits, like figs and grapes. Unquestionably, olives and olive oil were the most valuable products in ancient times.

Olive oil, besides being a fatty nutrient, always had other various uses. It had a special place in the Orthodox Church ceremonies, and it was used for the consecration of the Orthodox priests and of the kings of Greece. In biblical history, the olive tree played its role. Noah, after the waters of the flood receded, sent a dove out from the Ark. The dove came back carrying an olive branch in its mouth, and the olive tree was recognized as the symbol of peace thereafter.

The olive tree also played an important role in the decoration of pottery and of murals on the walls of houses. The olive tree has great historical importance because of the antiquity of its culture and the extent of its influence upon the development of Western civilization. It is not a coincidence that Romans, Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians, Israelites, Arabs, Babylonians, and many other people in ancient history were considered to be “children of the olive land” and were nourished by the fruit of the olive tree.

Many olive cultivars have been developed over the centuries. Four of the cultivars most commonly used for oil production are ‘Koroneiki’ in Greece, ‘Frantoio’ in Italy, ‘Arbequina’ in Spain, and ‘Mission’ in the United States. Olive cultivars differ in the size and color of their fruit, in oil content, as well as in quality. Some cultivars produce oil superior to that of most others. Thus, olives vary from cultivar to cultivar, as do apples or other fruits.

Unlike other fruit-producing trees, however, olive trees live to be centuries old and sometimes thousands of years old. The aged trunks in the natural environment of an olive grove are eye-catching; they make people appreciate Nature's work of art and lead to the trees' conservation and their characterization as areas of “particular natural beauty” for some (Simantirakis & Lykoudi, 2001), or as “Monumental Olive Trees of the World” for others (Association of Cretan Olive Municipalities [ACOM], 2002) (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Monumental olive trees. Left: Mother tree of Kalamata olives. Center: Tragic physiognomy – trapped spirit of the wood. Source: Courtesy of Simantirakis. Right: Ancient olive tree of the editor's area. Source: Courtesy of Mountakis.

There are several monumental trees in many countries (Italy, Spain, Portugal, Cyprus, Greece, etc.). In Greece, for example, there are the olive trees of the goddess Athena, of Plato, and of Hippocrates. There is also the olive tree of Kalamata (Psyllakis et al., 2003) with an 8-meter perimeter; it is more than 800 years old and is the only tree that survived the big fire (1821–1824) in Peloponnese. On the island of Crete, among the 20 ancient olive trees that are older than 1000 years, the famous “olive tree of Vouves” is probably one of the oldest olive trees in the world, still producing some fruit, with an age estimated between 2000 and 3000 years old. This natural monument attracts many visitors every year.

1.3 Evolution of the ol...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Series
• Title Page
• Copyright
• List of Contributors
• Preface
• 1: Olive tree history and evolution
• 2: Botanical characteristics of olive trees: cultivation and growth conditions – defense mechanisms to various stressors and effects on olive growth and functional compounds
• 3: Conventional and organic cultivation and their effect on the functional composition of olive oil
• 4: The influence of growing region and cultivar on olives and olive oil characteristics and on their functional constituents
• 5: Olive fruit and olive oil composition and their functional compounds
• 6: Mechanical harvesting of olives
• 7: Olive fruit harvest and processing and their effects on oil functional compounds
• 8: Application of HACCP and traceability in olive oil mills and packaging units and their effect on quality and functionality
• 9: Integrated olive mill waste (OMW) processing toward complete by-product recovery of functional components
• 10: Olive oil quality and its relation to the functional bioactives and their properties
• 11: Optical nondestructive UV-Vis-NIR-MIR spectroscopic tools and chemometrics in the monitoring of olive oil functional compounds
• 12: Oxidative stability and the role of minor and functional components of olive oil
• 13: Chemical and sensory changes in olive oil during deep frying
• 14: Olive oil packaging: recent developments
• 15: Table olives: processing, nutritional, and health implications
• 16: Greek-style table olives and their functional value
• 17: Food hazards and quality control in table olive processing with a special reference to functional compounds
• 18: Improving the quality of processed olives: acrylamide in Californian table olives
• 19: Antioxidants of olive oil, olive leaves, and their bioactivity
• 20: Composition and analysis of functional components of olive leaves
• 21: Production of phenol-enriched olive oil
• 22: Olives and olive oil: a Mediterranean source of polyphenols
• 23: Bioactive components from olive oil as putative epigenetic modulators
• 24: Phenolic compounds of olives and olive oil and their bioavailability
• 25: Antiatherogenic properties of olive oil glycolipids
• 26: Nutritional and health aspects of olive oil and diseases
• 27: Lipidomics and health: an added value to olive oil
• 28: Analysis of olive oil quality
• 29: Detection of extra virgin olive oil adulteration
• 30: Authentication of olive oil based on minor components
• 31: New analytical trends for the measurement of phenolic substances of olive oil and olives with significant biological and functional importance related to health claims
• 32: DNA fingerprinting as a novel tool for olive and olive oil authentication, traceability, and detection of functional compounds
• 33: Sensory properties and evaluation of virgin olive oils
• 34: International standards and legislative issues concerning olive oil and table olives and the nutritional, functional, and health claims related
• 35: The functional olive oil market: marketing prospects and opportunities
• Future Research Needs
• Index
• EULA