Gut Dysbiosis

12 Key excerpts on "Gut Dysbiosis"

• 

  eBook - ePub

  The Gut Microbiota in Health and Disease

  • Nimmy Srivastava, Salam A. Ibrahim, Jayeeta Chattopadhyay, Mohamed H. Arbab(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  6 Connection between Dysbiosis and Diet Sagnik Nag1 , Nimmy Srivastava2 , Rohan Dutta1, Aparajita Bagchi1 , Israrahmed Adur1 , and Shuvam Chakraborty1 1 Department of Biotechnology, School of Biosciences & Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Tamil Nadu, India 2 Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Jharkhand, India

  6.1 Introduction

  6.1.1 Gut Microbiota and Dysbiosis

  The gastrointestinal tract, which includes the oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, extends from the mouth to the anus [1 ]. Along the gastrointestinal tract, the associated host microbe symbiotic relationship plays a key role in digestion and influences host health. Gut microbiota is a dynamic composition with trillions of microorganisms, 35 000 species of bacteria, archaea and yeasts [2 ]. It constitutes the genus Bacteroidetes, Fermicutes, Prevotella, Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Eubacterium, Propionibacterium, Escherichia, Enterococcus, Peptostreptococcus, Fusobacteria, and Ruminococcin [3 , 4 ]. The composition of human gut microbiota gradually changes from birth to adult stage and remains unaltered until there is a bacterial infection, antibiotic treatment, lifestyle, or long-term change in diet plan [5 ]. Maternal microbiota acts as an inoculum from birth, resembling bacteria from the mother’s vagina or skin, depending on whether the route of delivery is vaginal birth or assisted delivery of the newborn (C-section) [6 ]. At infancy, family environment, breast feeding, lactation period, genetics, and the environment define the gut microbiome. The diet lifestyle, medication during adulthood, and elderly age effectively influence the gut microbiota [5 ]. The gut microbiota is also responsible for the regulation of adaptive immunity, inflammatory signalling, physiology, and regulation [7 ].

  Dysbiosis is the imbalance of gut microflora that interferes with the digestive system and causes various pathological ailments. There are several factors that contribute to dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and can have an influence on host health, the most important of which is diet or nutrition [8 ]. According to Kashtanova et al., increasing food intake in kcal per day with 24% protein, 16% fat, and 60% carbs for three days can increase firmicutes while decreasing Bacteroidetes [3 ]. Studies reveal the protein content in diet from plant and animal sources, 30% of fat with stable proportions of short chain fatty acid, Mono-unsaturated Fatty acids (MUFA), Poly-unsaturated Fatty acids (PUFA), and type of oligosaccharides have a significant impact on gut microbes [9 ]. Dysbiosis of the beneficial microbes in the gut may lead to an imbalance between the metabolic activity and by-product, and the bacterial toxins [10 ]. Dysbiosis is related to many diseases such as IBD, Crohn’s disease (CD), and ulcerative colitis (UC), gastrointestinal disorders, IBS, celiac disease, CRC, and Central nervous system (CNS) related disorders [8 ]. Although diet plays a key role in dysbiosis, 60–70% of mothers diet during pregnancy, and breast feeding, genetics and, epigenetics crucially defines one’s gut microbial diversity [3 ]. Therefore, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends six months of breastfeeding for an infant, as it plays a key role in the infant’s metabolic and immunological programming, influencing the gut microbiota [9

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  The Theory of Endobiogeny

  Volume 2: Foundational Concepts for Treatment of Common Clinical Conditions

  • Kamyar M. Hedayat, Jean-Claude Lapraz(Authors)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 6

  Disorders of dysbiosis

  Abstract

  Symbiosis is a key indicator of health of the epiorganism we call the human being. Dysbiosis is an imbalance of the quantity, quality, or diversity of microorganisms. Because the commensal flora are symbionts that live within a complex relationship with the host, the assessment and treatment of dysbiosis must consider these multiple levels of influence. With response to the enteric flora, local endogenous functioning of the hepato-biliary-pancreatic relationship is key. The local and global neuroendocrine and immune factors also play important roles. With respect to local exogenous factors, diet is influential. Its impact starts with maternal diet during pregnancy and continues to play an important role throughout life. The ability of the organism to adapt the flora to chronobiological unfoldments and seasonal changes are also potential sources of dysbiosis. The use of alimentation and medicinal plants that address these various factors is discussed along with case studies demonstrating their application in various galenic forms. Endobiogeny favors the treatment of the underlying terrain over exclusive substitutive treatment with probiotics.

  Keywords

  Dysbiosis; Endobiogeny; Fecal transplantation; Hyperimmunity; Hypoimmunity; Microbiome; Prebiotics; Probiotics; Terrain

  These days, people have changed their way of life. They drink wine as though it were water, indulge excessively in destructive activities, and drain [themselves]. They do not know the secret of conserving their energy and vitality. Seeking emotional excitement and momentary pleasures, people disregard the natural rhythm of the universe. They fail to regulate their lifestyle and diet, and sleep improperly. So it is not surprising that they look old at fifty and die soon after.

  Chapter 1, Yellow Emperor’s Classic, 240 BCE.

  Introduction

  Symbiosis represents a harmonious endobiogenic equilibrium of organisms in benefit of each and all. The human host and the microbiome are each part of a whole. In this relationship, the microbiome is by far the larger partner with respect to number of subparts, genes, cells, etc. And the host, the minority of cellular and genetic material, is more often the prima facie cause of dysbiosis. Disorders of rhythmic living, of human alimentary and lifestyle choices are more significant factors in alteration of the diversity of enteric flora than a malicious attempt by the flora to live in disharmony with its host and partner. While imbalanced living feels like a disorder of contemporary times, it is, in fact, a long-standing concern of healthcare providers. There are important environmental pollutants, such as glyphosate that alter the microbial community and affect the production of key metabolites.1 , 2

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  Handbook of Research on Food Processing and Preservation Technologies

  5-volume set

  • Megh R. Goyal, Preeti Birwal, Monika Sharma, Megh R. Goyal, Preeti Birwal, Monika Sharma(Authors)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Apple Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  Dysbiosis (imbalance in the homeostasis of gut microbiota) is attributed to genetics, age, antibiotics, as well as environmental factors that leave detrimental effects on gut microbiota and lead to some non-communicable diseases cardiometabolic diseases, namely obesity and diabetes. Time-to- time, several organizations have provided several dietary guidelines to the public to reduce the worldwide pandemic of metabolic diseases. However, 69 Human Gut Microbiota: Designer Diet and Review these approaches could not succeed due to variations in host’s genome and microbiome, therefore, “one-ft-for all” dietary approach does not yield expected results. Because of the above facts, the gut microbiota is a delicate balance between the growth of good and bad microbes inside the gut. It can be achieved by designing food based on the concept of diet-microbes interaction [55]. However, palatability of foods is also a crucial factor for consumers that cannot be ignored for the sake of food composition. 2.8 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT DESIGN OF FOODS AND MICROBIOTA 2.8.1 BIOAVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENT TO MICROFLORA It is well known that the gut microbial community mainly grows on the non-absorbed food including non-digestible starch, proteins, polyphenols, and excess amounts of micronutrients in the lower part of the human gut. Hence, alterations in the bioavailability of food are the major criteria to design a diet or personalized diet. The issue of bioavailability depends on two factors: (1) the higher bioavailability of macronutrients and energy to host and little bioavailability of substrate for microbial growth in the gut [15]; (2) less bioavailability of food and energy to hosts in particular, for those are suffering from malnutrition and diseases. The bioavailability factor can be modulated by food processing methods, e.g., types of foods, structure of foods. For instance, triglycerides (TAGs) bioavailability can be changed through food processing methods [8].

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  Gut Microbiota

  Brain Axis

  • Alper Evrensel, Bar?? Önen Ünsalver, Barış Önen Ünsalver, Alper Evrensel, Barış Önen Ünsalver(Authors)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • IntechOpen

    (Publisher)

  of microbiota is needed to maintain microbial homeostasis inside gut, which potentially affect the health of individuals. Change in composition of gut microbiota by any factors as described earlier is called dysbiosis, which can cause several diseases and disorders includ-ing allergies, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), diabetes, cancer, and autism as reviewed earlier [8]. Even though detail mechanisms that are responsible for maintaining gut microbial homeostasis need to be explored more in the future, host intestinal barrier and immune sys-tem, dietary components and Quorum sensing are some of the critical mechanisms identified and studied so far [10]. 2. Intestinal barrier and host immune system for maintaining microbial homeostasis Prokaryotes are prevalent in all environments [11, 12] having to live in mutualism with eukaryotes [13–16 ]. Adaptive diversification is a process intrinsically tied to species inter -actions [17]. The endosymbiotic theory states that several vital organelles of eukaryotes originated as symbioses between separate single-celled organisms [18, 19]. Hence, organ-elles such as mitochondria and plastids once free-living bacteria that were taken by the more important cell as an endosymbiont [20–22]. The microbiome of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) contains over 50 genera and at least 1000 different species [ 23–29], and the cecum and colon of humans, harbor ~10 13 cfu/g [29], covering to 40–55% of solid stool mat-ter and weights [30–32]. The microbiome modulates the development of the innate and acquired immune system [33–35], gastrointestinal physiology [36–41] and digestibility of nutrients [42–46 ] of metazoans. Many factors including nutrient composition, stress, and antibiotics can alter the microbiome [47–51]. In fact, the western obesogenic diet is associ-ated to induce and promote several metabolic disorders and cancer [52–58]. Microbiome and its host are working as one single organism.

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  Biotechnological Approaches for Sustainable Development

  • Pullaiah, T(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Regency Publications

    (Publisher)

  Major Influencing Factors for Gut Dysbiosis A frequent disorder of intestinal function is dysbiosis, i.e., the overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria in the intestine. This microflora plays critical roles in the digestion and absorption of nutrients, in the synthesis of vitamins (B and K groups) and fatty acids, in the detoxification of ingested chemicals, but also in the regulation of the immune system. Alterations in the composition of the gut microflora may have serious consequences for the host health. Factors that can affect the microflora include antibiotic use, stress, and diet and genetic factors. Antibiotic use is a common cause of major alterations. Dosage, length of administration, spectrum of activity will determine the impact on the microbial flora (Wynne et al ., 2004; Vedantam and Hecht, 2003; Beaugerie and Petit, 2004; Carman et al ., 2004). Psychological stress can also affect the composition of the flora, including a significant decrease in beneficial bacteria ( Lactobacilli and Bifidobacteria ) and an increase in pathogenic E. coli . Stress may affect bacterial growth by significantly reducing the mucosal production of mucopolysaccharides and mucins, which are important for inhibiting the adherence of pathogenic organisms, and by decreasing the production of immunoglobulin A (IgA), which play a crucial role in their elimination (Hart and Kamm, 2002; Alverdy et al ., 2005; Lewis and Mckay, 2009). Neurochemicals produced upon psychological stress can also directly enhance the growth of pathogenic organisms: norepinephrine stimulates the growth of Y. enterocolitica , P. aeruginosa , and gram-negative bacteria such This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed. as E. coli (Freestone et al ., 2007a, b). Diet , is another factor that may have an impact on the human intestinal flora (Mainous et al ., 1994). Some diets promote the growth of beneficial microorganisms, while others promote harmful microfloral activities.

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  Small Animal Microbiomes and Nutrition

  • Robin Saar, Sarah Dodd(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  There is thus an importance in ensuring the integrity of the composition and proper maturation of the microbiomes early in life. In humans, diseases suggested to be associated with dysbiosis dur- ing the development years of the microbiome and immune system include asthma (respiratory disease), allergies, obesity, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel disease [22]. The lack of specific or combination of microbiota species, lack of insufficient metabolite production due to the decreased density of specific microbiota, a change in host physiological function due to the reduction in specific microbiota or corresponding reduction in metabolite production, or the ability for a pathobiont to inhabit or colonize where it would have previ- ously been excluded may all contribute to the etiopathogenesis of associated disease conditions. There is an association between low microbial richness with an increase of proinflammatory microbial species, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, and a marked inflamma- tory phenotype [22]. With a juvenile microbiome, there is the consid- eration of an immature immune system, which may result in different outcomes compared to a pet with a functioning healthy mature immune system. Genetics play a role in the risk of disease development, along with varying results between sexes. For example, one study in mice found that antibiotic treatment to “germ-free” mice early in life had an increased incidence of diabetes only in the male mice [24]. Another long-term study of over 12,000 human children found that in the first 6 years of life, there was a significant reduction of weight and height gain after neona- tal antibiotic exposure in the boys only [25]. When a fecal transplant was completed from the neonatal antibiotic-treated boys and placed in “germ-free mice,” the male but not female mice experienced significant growth impairment.

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  The Gut Microbiome

  Implications for Human Disease

  • Gyula Mozsik(Author)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • IntechOpen

    (Publisher)

  Future work that expands on our current understanding of the dysbioses that occur in CNS diseases should hopefully provide further insight into microbiota-related disease mechanisms and provide additional therapeutic options for patients. Acknowledgements This chapter was supported in part by the Department of Pathology, New York University Langone Medical Center, National Cancer Institute, National Institute of Allergy and Infec-tious Diseases, and National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research of the National The Gut Microbiome - Implications for Human Disease 52 Institutes of Health under award numbers UH3CA140233, U01CA182370, R01CA159036, R01AI110372, and R21DE025352. ZP is a Staff Physician at the Department of Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Healthcare System. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, or the United States Government. Dr. Hickman and Dr. Hussein equally contributed to this work. Author details Richard A. Hickman 1 , Maryem A. Hussein 1 and Zhiheng Pei 1,2* *Address all correspondence to: [email protected] 1 New York University School of Medicine, New York, USA 2 Department of Veterans Affairs New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York, USA References [1] Gill SR, Pop M, Deboy RT, Eckburg PB, Turnbaugh PJ, Samuel BS, et al. Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome. Science (New York, NY). 2006;312(5778): 1355–9. [2] Lee WJ, Hase K. Gut microbiota-generated metabolites in animal health and disease. Nature Chemical Biology. 2014;10(6):416–24. [3] Walker AW, Lawley TD. Therapeutic modulation of intestinal dysbiosis. Pharmaco-logical Research. 2013;69(1):75–86. [4] Forsythe P, Bienenstock J, Kunze WA. Vagal pathways for microbiome-brain-gut axis communication. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 2014;817:115–33.

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  eBook - ePub

  You and Your Gut

  • Peter Baratosy(Author)
  • 2024(Publication Date)
  • Dr Peter Baratosy

    (Publisher)

  Dysbiosis

   

  “There is a pill for every ill and a bill for every pill.”Unknown

   

  “There is a pill for every ill and an ill for every pill.”Prof. Anton Jayasuriya

   

  It is well known that our colon is full of bacteria. We, therefore, to be well, must be in balance with these bacteria. When we are out of balance, we become sick. Isn't this what is happening in our society? So many are sick with digestive and abdominal problems.

   

  The gut microbiome

   

  What is the microbiome? This is another word that has come into common use in the past decade. The microbiome is the sum total of trillions of microorganisms that live in the gut. The gut is only one niche of the whole human microbiota. Not only do microorganisms live in the gut, but they are also on our skin, in the mouth, the vagina, in fact, almost everywhere. A recent report from the ABC (ABC News 3 June 2018) has shown that a microbiome even exists in the bladder.

   

  The gut as the second brain

   

  This is a good time to introduce the topic of the gut-brain connection. The gut is a very complex organ, it is not just a tube from the mouth to the anus. Recent findings (Spencer et al., 2018) have made it even more complicated. Other than the trillions of gut microorganisms that reside in the gut there is also a complex array of over 100 million nerve cells or neurons. There are even more nerve cells in the gut than in the spinal cord (Sonnenburg & Sonnenburg, 2015).

  The second brain is the gut. All these nerves are not just for local control, as there is a two-way connection to and from the “main” brain. The enteric nervous system (ENS) not only controls the gut but can signal and influence the “main” brain, including how it processes thoughts and emotions. For many years, we have connected the brain with the gut without really thinking about it. This is shown through common phrases that have entered our language. We have a “gut feeling”, we “hate your guts” “you are a pain in the arse”, then we get “butterflies in the stomach” when nervous, and we may “poop our pants” when scared. We get abdominal discomfort and bloating when anxious. There is a close relationship between the adrenal glands and the gut, and our gut is very responsive to our emotions, especially anxiety and stress. When we are stressed, the initial reaction is the “flight or fight” response. The body shunts blood to the muscles so that we can run faster or fight harder. As digestion is not a priority when running or fighting, blood supply is diverted from the gut and therefore the gut suffers.

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  Nutrigenomics and Nutrigenetics in Functional Foods and Personalized Nutrition

  • Lynnette R. Ferguson(Author)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  S. (2011). Host genetic susceptibility, dysbiosis, and viral triggers in inflammatory bowel disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 27 : 321–327. 16. Furrie, E., Macfarlane, S., Thomson, G., and Macfarlane, G. T. (2005). Toll-like recep-tors-2, -3 and -4 expression patterns on human colon and their regulation by mucosal-associated bacteria. Immunology 115 : 565–574. 17. Delzenne, N. M., Neyrinck, A. M., and Cani, P. D. (2011). Modulation of the gut micro-biota by nutrients with prebiotic properties: consequences for host health in the context of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Microb Cell Fact 10 Suppl 1 : S10. 18. Tannock, G. W., Munro, K., Bibiloni, R., Simon, M. A., Hargreaves, P. et al. (2004). Impact of consumption of oligosaccharide-containing biscuits on the fecal microbiota of humans. Appl Environ Microbiol 70 : 2129–2136. 19. Walter, J., Tannock, G. W., Tilsala-Timisjarvi, A., Rodtong, S., Loach, D. M. et al. (2000). Detection and identification of gastrointestinal Lactobacillus species by using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and species-specific PCR primers. Appl Environ Microbiol 66 : 297–303. 20. Simpson, J. M., McCracken, V. J., White, B. A., Gaskins, H. R., and Mackie, R. I. (1999). Application of denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis for the analysis of the porcine gastrointestinal microbiota. J Microbiol Methods 36 : 167–179. 21. Qin, J., Li, R., Raes, J., Arumugam, M., Burgdorf, K. S. et al. (2010). A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464 : 59–65. 22. Muegge, B. D., Kuczynski, J., Knights, D., Clemente, J. C., Gonzalez, A. et al. (2011). Diet drives convergence in gut microbiome functions across mammalian phylogeny and within humans. Science 332 : 970–974. 23. Claesson, M. J., Cusack, S., O’Sullivan, O., Greene-Diniz, R., de Weerd, H. et al. (2011). Composition, variability, and temporal stability of the intestinal microbiota of the elderly. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108 Suppl 1 : 4586–4591. 24.

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  Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics

  Technological Advancements Towards Safety and Industrial Applications

  • Parmjit Singh Panesar, Anil Kumar Anal, Parmjit Singh Panesar, Anil Kumar Anal(Authors)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Clinical Therapeutics , 42(9): 1637–1648. Norman, J.M., Handley, S.A., Baldridge, M.T., Droit, L., Liu, C.Y., Keller, B.C., Kambal, A., Monaco, C.L., Zhao, G. and Fleshner, P. (2015). Disease-specific alterations in the enteric virome in inflammatory bowel disease. Cell , 160(3): 447–460. Noverr, M.C. and Huffnagle, G.B. (2004). Does the microbiota regulate immune responses outside the gut?. Trends in Microbiology , 12(12): 562–568. O’Connor, S., Chouinard-Castonguay, S., Gagnon, C. and Rudkowska, I. (2017). Prebiotics in the management of components of the metabolic syndrome. Maturitas , 104: 11–18. Ojeda, P., Bobe, A., Dolan, K., Leone, V. and Martinez, K. (2016). Nutritional modulation of gut microbiota — the impact on metabolic disease pathophysiology. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry , 28: 191–200. Olveira, G. and González-Molero, I. (2016). An update on probiotics, prebiotics and symbiotics in clinical nutrition. Endocrinología y Nutrición , 63(9): 482–494. 17 Gut Microbiome as Source for Prevention of Metabolic-Related Diseases 436 Park, M.Y., Kim, J., Kim, S. and Whang, K.Y. (2018). Lactobacillus curvatus KFP419 and Leuconostoc mesenteroides subsp. mesenteroides KDK411 isolated from kimchi ameliorate hypercholesterolemia in rats. Journal of Medicinal Food , 21(7): 647–653. Parkar, S.G., Stevenson, D.E. and Skinner, M.A. (2008). The potential influence of fruit polyphenols on colonic microflora and human gut health. International Journal of Food Microbiology , 124(3): 295–298. Parvin, S., Easmin, D., Sheikh, A., Biswas, M., Sharma, S.C.D., Jahan, M.G.S., Islam, M.A., Shovon, M. and Roy, N. (2015). Nutritional analysis of date fruits (Phoenix dactylifera L.) in perspective of Bangladesh. American Journal of Life Sciences , 3(4): 274–278. Pascale, A., Marchesi, N., Marelli, C., Coppola, A., Luzi, L., Govoni, S., Giustina, A. and Gazzaruso, C. (2018). Microbiota and metabolic diseases. Endocrine , 61(3): 357–371. Pérez-Jiménez, J., Neveu, V., Vos, F.

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  Human Intestinal Microflora in Health and Disease

  • David J. Hentges(Author)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  Infections accompanied by diarrhea involve the net secretion of water and electrolytes from the small intestinal mucosa and/or impaired absorp-tion of water from the large intestine. Anatomical and functional changes occur in the mucosa. Infection of the gastrointestinal tract could thus be expected to disrupt the ecosystem profoundly with resultant changes in indigenous microbial popula-tions. IV. CAN WE ADEQUATELY MEASURE CHANGES IN MICROBIAL POPULATIONS IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT? To answer this question, we can consider experiments in which different dietary regimes have been tested to observe their influence on gastrointestinal microbial populations. Several experiments using monogastric animals show that marked (10 mg/day per os) for 3 days, starved for 24 hr, fed 18 g of yogurt, then fasted for 3 hr. The crypt openings appear to be enlarged, perhaps due to the collapse of surrounding tissue. No mucus or microbial cells are visible. Final magnification of figures: (a) X97.5; (b) X1950; (c) X97 .5. Photographs kindly supplied by D. Schellenberg, Research Department, Nestlé Products Technical Assistance Co. Ltd., 1814 La Tour de Peilz, Switzerland. Photograph (b) reproduced from D. Schellenberg and J. Pangborn, Scanning 3, 237-239 (1980) by permission of the publishers. 524 Gerald W. Tannock changes in the diet influence this site. Meat-fed rats do not have a layer of lac-tobacilli colonizing the epithelium of the stomach, but the layer is present in the stomach of mash-fed rats (Brownlee and Moss, 1961). Meat-fed rats have more proteolytic bacteria and fewer saccharolytic bacteria in their feces than do animals fed a pelleted food (Chung et al., 1977). Dubos and Schaedler (1962) found that there were fewer lactobacilli in the feces of mice maintained on a semisynthetic diet than in the feces of mice fed commercially prepared food pellets or on diets contain-ing whole wheat and whole milk.

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  Microbes and the Mind

  The Impact of the Microbiome on Mental Health

  • Caitlin S. M. Cowan, Brian E. Leonard, C.S.M. Cowan, B.E. Leonard, Caitlin S.M., Cowan, Brian E., Leonard, Brian E. Leonard, Brian E., Leonard, Caitlin, Cowan, Brian E., Leonard(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • S. Karger

    (Publisher)

  101 Hsiao EY, et al: Microbiota modulate behavioral and physiological abnor-malities associated with neurodevelop-mental disorders. Cell 2013; 155: 1451– 1463. 102 Buffington SA, et al: Microbial recon-stitution reverses maternal diet-in-duced social and synaptic deficits in offspring. Cell 2016; 165: 1762–1775. 103 Krishnan V, Nestler EJ: The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature 2008; 455: 894–902. 104 Leonard BE: The concept of depression as a dysfunction of the immune sys-tem. Curr Immunol Rev 2010; 6: 205– 212. 105 Kelly JR, et al: Transferring the blues: depression-associated gut microbiota induces neurobehavioural changes in the rat. J Psychiatr Res 2016; 82: 109– 118. 106 Diaz Heijtz R, et al: Normal gut micro-biota modulates brain development and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011; 108: 3047–3052. 107 Desbonnet L, et al: Effects of the probi-otic Bifidobacterium infantis in the maternal separation model of depres-sion. Neuroscience 2010; 170: 1179– 1188. 108 Desbonnet L, et al: The probiotic Bifi-dobacteria infantis : an assessment of potential antidepressant properties in the rat. J Psychiatr Res 2008; 43: 164– 174. 109 Bercik P, et al: The anxiolytic effect of Bifidobacterium longum NCC3001 involves vagal pathways for gut-brain communication. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011; 23: 1132–1139. 110 Bravo JA, et al: Ingestion of Lactoba-cillus strain regulates emotional be-havior and central GABA receptor ex-pression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011; 108: 16050–16055. 111 Bellavance M-A, Rivest S: The HPA-immune axis and the immunomodula-tory actions of glucocorticoids in the brain. Front Immunol 2014; 5: 136. 112 Huang W-S, et al: Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and de-mentia. J Clin Neurosci 2014; 21: 1355– 1358. 113 Lurain NS, et al: Virological and im-munological characteristics of human cytomegalovirus infection associated with Alzheimer disease.

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