Biological Sciences
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are biological macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information in living organisms. They are made up of nucleotide monomers, which consist of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The two main types of nucleic acids are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), both of which play crucial roles in the functioning of cells and inheritance.
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eBook - PDFChemistry for Today
General, Organic, and Biochemistry
- Spencer Seager, Michael Slabaugh, Maren Hansen, , Spencer Seager, Spencer Seager, Michael Slabaugh, Maren Hansen(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
This information controls the inherited characteristics of the individu- als in the new generation and determines the life processes as well (see Figure 21.1). nucleic acid A biomolecule involved in the transfer of genetic information from existing cells to new cells. FIGURE 21.1 Nucleic Acids passed from the parents to offspring determine the inherited characteristics. © Michael C. Slabaugh 21.1 Components of Nucleic Acids Learning Objective 1 Identify the components of nucleotides and correctly classify the sugars and bases. Nucleic Acids are classified into two categories: ribonucleic acid (RNA), found mainly in the cytoplasm of living cells, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), found primarily in the nuclei of cells. Both DNA and RNA are polymers, consisting of long, linear molecules. The repeating structural units, or monomers, of the Nucleic Acids are called nucleotides. Nucleotides, however, are composed of three simpler components: a heterocyclic base, a sugar, and a phosphate (see Figure 21.2). These components will be discussed individually. ribonucleic acid (RNA) A nucleic acid found mainly in the cytoplasm of cells. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) A nucleic acid found primarily in the nuclei of cells. nucleotide The repeating structural unit or monomer of polymeric Nucleic Acids. Nucleotides Nucleic acid Composed of Pyrimidines and purines Phosphate Ribose or 2-deoxyribose Composed of FIGURE 21.2 The composition of Nucleic Acids. Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
eBook - PDFBiochemistry
An Integrative Approach
- John T. Tansey(Author)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
CHAPTER OUTLINE 2.1 Nucleic Acids Have Distinct Structures 2.2 Nucleic Acids Have Many Cellular Functions 2.3 The Manipulation of Nucleic Acids Has Transformed Biochemistry Codes are languages that we have yet to elucidate. llhedgehogll/Getty Images 2.1 Nucleic Acids Have Distinct Structures 27 COMMON THEMES Evolution’s outcomes are conserved. • The classic observations and deductions made by Charles Darwin when he formulated the theory of evolution are equally relevant when we examine the molecular aspects of gene transmission. • Genetic traits, coded for by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), are conserved throughout evolution. Small, gradual changes in these coding sequences can be tracked through history to generate an evolutionary family tree. Structure determines function. • DNA molecules are made up of base pairs and have information coded within those base pairs. • The structure of DNA helps to explain how complex phenomena such as DNA replication occur, and how proteins interact with DNA (either specifically or nonspecifically) to organize DNA and regulate function. • RNA molecules can have complex structures that can encode information, regulate gene expression, or act catalytically. Biochemical information is transferred, exchanged, and stored. • Both DNA and RNA can serve as repositories of information that can be stored, translated into another type of molecule (RNA or protein), and transmitted to future generations. Biomolecules are altered through pathways involving transformations of energy and matter. • The nucleotide building blocks of RNA are used by the organism as a source of energy in numerous other chemical reactions. DYNAMIC FIGURE 2.1 DNA is the genetic material for nearly all organisms. It can be copied and passed from one generation of cells to the next, can be transcribed into RNA, and that code can be translated into protein. Techniques have been developed to analyze DNA sequences.
eBook - PDF- BIOTOL, B C Currell, R C E Dam-Mieras(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Butterworth-Heinemann(Publisher)
71 Nucleic Acids 4.1 Introduction 72 4.2 Components of Nucleic Acids 73 4.3 Nucleosides 77 4.4 Nucleotides 78 4.5 DNA 86 4.6 RNA 104 4.7 Genetic engineering -an outline 115 4.8 Hybridisation in molecular biology and biotechnology 121 Summary and objectives 126 72 Chapter 4 Nucleic Acids 4.1 Introduction Nucleic Acids include two types of macromolecules with crucial roles within cells. These are deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, which contains the genetic information of most organisms and ribonucleic acid, RNA, which is involved in the expression of the information contained in DNA. Both DNA and RNA are linear, unbranched polymers of mononucleotides. Mononucleotides, such as adenosine-triphosphate, ATP, and dinucleotides such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD + , also have important roles in the metabolism of cells. 4.1.1 Information transfer and roles: the central dogma Before discussing the structure of Nucleic Acids, we will summarise their roles by reference to the so-called 'Central Dogma of Molecular Biology' (Figure 4.1). DNA < > RNA ^ protein X v transcription translation replication Figure 4.1 The central dogma of molecular biology. Arrows represent the flow of information between the various types of molecules. This describes the flow of information from DNA through RNA to proteins. The central dogma describes three major processes in which information transfer occurs in cells. replication Replication, in which the DNA molecule is copied, with its information content being preserved. This occurs prior to cell division so that each 'daughter' cell receives an exact copy of the DNA present in the original cell. The sequence of the nucleotides (bases) in the DNA represents the information store. This specifies the order of the amino acids in proteins, ie the primary structure of proteins.
eBook - PDF- William H. Brown, Thomas Poon(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
648 THE ORGANIZATION, MAINTENANCE, and regulation of cellular function require a tre- mendous amount of information, all of which must be processed each time a cell is replicated. With very few exceptions, genetic information is stored and transmitted from one generation to the next in the form of deoxyriboNucleic Acids (DNA). Genes, the hereditary units of chro- mosomes, are long stretches of double‐stranded DNA. If the DNA in a human chromosome in a single cell were uncoiled, it would be approximately 1.8 meters long! Genetic information is expressed in two stages: transcription from DNA to riboNucleic Acids (RNA) and then translation through the synthesis of proteins: DNA transcription RNA translation proteins Thus, DNA is an enormous molecule that stores our genetic information, whereas RNA serves in the transcription and translation of this information, which is then expressed through the synthesis of proteins. In this chapter, we will first examine the DNA molecule in detail to gain an understanding of its structure and function. We start by examining the structure of nucleosides and nucleotides and the manner in which these monomers are covalently bonded to form Nucleic Acids. Then we explore how genetic information is encoded on molecules of DNA, the function of the three types of riboNucleic Acids, and, finally, how the primary structure of a DNA molecule is determined. 20.1 What Are Nucleosides and Nucleotides? Controlled hydrolysis of Nucleic Acids yields three types of simpler building blocks: hetero- cyclic aromatic amine bases, the monosaccharide d‐ribose or 2‐deoxy‐d‐ribose (Section 17.3), and phosphate ions. Figure 20.1 shows the five heterocyclic aromatic amine bases most Nucleic acid A biopolymer containing three types of monomer units: heterocyclic aromatic amine bases derived from purine and pyrimidine, the monosaccharides D‐ribose or 2‐deoxy‐ D‐ribose, and phosphate.
eBook - PDF- Dongyou Liu(Author)
- 2009(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
Genome sequencing data provided a basis for detailed research into metabolism, gene regulation, evolution, and pathology of biological organisms. Advances in nucleic acid syntheses, elaboration of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and molecular selection techniques have resulted in the development of a number of nucleic acid-based technologies. The enormous specificity of the complementary interactions of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and DNA fragments and oligonucleotides has provided the possibility of designing new materials, molecular machines and devices for the detection, isolation and sequencing analysis of Nucleic Acids, and manipulation of DNA and RNA and proteins. In this chapter, we present a brief outline concerning properties of Nucleic Acids, their roles in biological systems, and growing number of applications. 2 Handbook of Nucleic Acid Purification 1.2 STRUCTURES 1.2.1 S IZES AND C LASSES Nucleic Acids are polymers consisting of nucleotides. Natural specimens of Nucleic Acids vary in length from tens of nucleotides in some RNAs to tens of millions in prokaryotic genomes and hundreds of millions in eukaryotic chromosomes. The number of nucleotides in complete genomes of plants and animals approaches to the value of 10 billions [2–6]. Figure 1.1 presents the information about the size of cellular Nucleic Acids. Nucleic Acids are present in cells in single-stranded or double-stranded (duplex) state. MicroRNA (miRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), as well as a number of viral RNA- and DNA-containing genomes are single stranded. Small interfering RNA (siRNA), the rest of viral genomes, and genomic DNA of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including genomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts, are double stranded. 1.2.2 C OMPOSITIONS A nucleotide unit consists of a monosaccharide residue (ribose or 2'-deoxyribose), a nitrogen base (purine or pyrimidine), and a phosphate residue.
eBook - ePubMolecular Biology
Structure and Dynamics of Genomes and Proteomes
- Jordanka Zlatanova(Author)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Garland Science(Publisher)
Nucleic AcidsDOI: 10.1201/9781003132929-4Learning objectivesInformation storage and transmission involve two kinds of Nucleic Acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Nucleic Acids are polymers built on a repetitive backbone of sugar moieties linked by phosphodiester bonds. In RNA the sugar is ribose; in DNA the sugar is 2′-deoxyribose. Attached to each sugar is a basic unit, either a purine or a pyrimidine. In DNA, the purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G), and the pyrimidines are cytosine (C) and thymine (T); in RNA uracil (U) substitutes for T. The sequence of bases along the polynucleotide chain provides the information for protein structure. Here, we present the Watson and Crick double-helical structure of the DNA, with base pairing of A with T and G with C in the complementary strands. This structure of DNA allows for copying and information transfer from one cell generation to the next.We also describe the possible structures of circular DNA molecules, introducing the concepts of supercoiling and linking number, Lk, the total number of times one strand crosses the other. We also introduce the classes of enzymes (topoisomerases) that can change the linking number of DNA molecules in the cell.RNA molecules are usually found in vivo as single-stranded molecules that have been copied (transcribed) from one strand of genomic DNA. RNAs are intermediaries in the transfer of genetic information from DNA to proteins. They can also perform many other functions, from regulation of transcription to the enzyme functions of ribozymes.4.1 Introduction
Protein sequences are dictated by Nucleic Acids
We have seen that proteins, in their enormous variety, can play a host of roles in the cell, both structural and functional. Each protein accomplishes this by having a unique amino acid sequence, which determines its secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The information that dictates these sequences must somehow be stored in the cell, expressed in proteins, and transmitted through generations of cells and organisms. These vital functions are provided by biopolymers called Nucleic Acids, or polynucleotides, of which there are two kinds: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA
eBook - ePub- David P. Clark(Author)
- 2009(Publication Date)
- Academic Cell(Publisher)
Chapter Three
DNA, RNA and Protein
Nucleic Acid Molecules Carry Genetic Information Chemical Structure of Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA Each Have Four Bases Nucleosides Are Bases Plus Sugars; Nucleotides Are Nucleosides Plus Phosphate Double Stranded DNA Forms a Double Helix Base Pairs are Held Together by Hydrogen Bonds Complementary Strands Reveal the Secret of Heredity Constituents of Chromosomes The Central Dogma Outlines the Flow of Genetic Information Ribosomes Read the Genetic Code The Genetic Code Dictates the Amino Acid Sequence of Proteins Various Classes of RNA Have Different Functions Proteins, Made of Amino Acids, Carry Out Many Cell Functions The Structure of Proteins Has Four Levels of Organization Proteins Vary in Their Biological RolesNucleic Acid Molecules Carry Genetic Information
Chapter 1 discussed how the fundamentals of modern genetics were laid when Mendel found that hereditary information consists of discrete fundamental units now called genes. Each gene is responsible for a single inherited property or characteristic of the organism. Just as the discovery that atoms are made of subatomic particles ushered in the nuclear age, so the realization that genes are made up of DNA molecules opened the way both to a deeper understanding of life and to its artificial alteration by genetic engineering.Genetic information is encoded by molecules named Nucleic Acids because they were originally isolated from the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. There are two related types of nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
eBook - ePubBiochemistry
An Integrative Approach with Expanded Topics
- John T. Tansey(Author)
- 2022(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
• Genetic traits, coded for by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), are conserved throughout evolution. Small, gradual changes in these coding sequences can be tracked through history to generate an evolutionary family tree.Structure determines function.• DNA molecules are made up of base pairs and have information coded within those base pairs.• The structure of DNA helps to explain how complex phenomena such as DNA replication occur, and how proteins interact with DNA (either specifically or nonspecifically) to organize DNA and regulate function.• RNA molecules can have complex structures that can encode information, regulate gene expression, or act catalytically.Biochemical information is transferred, exchanged, and stored.• Both DNA and RNA can serve as repositories of information that can be stored, translated into another type of molecule (RNA or protein), and transmitted to future generations.Biomolecules are altered through pathways involving transformations of energy and matter.• The nucleotide building blocks of RNA are used by the organism as a source of energy in numerous other chemical reactions.2.1 Nucleic Acids are the Genetic MaterialsNucleic Acids exist as long linear or circular macromolecules in the form of DNA and RNA made of linked nucleotides. The most striking feature of these molecules is that they carry the essential genetic information that directs the functions of a cell.Cell nucleus was recognized to play a major role in inheritance during the late 1870s, based on the observations that male nuclei and female reproductive cells fertilize by undergoing fusion. Subsequently, thread-like entities called chromosomes were found inside the cell when stained with certain dyes. In the late 1900s, the chromosomes were found to be the promising material for carrying genes and their features suggested an interrelationship with DNA. The presence of DNA in chromosomes was observed using special stains. In addition, several types of chromosomal proteins with varying amounts were found across various cell types in contrast to the amount of DNA that remained constant. In higher organisms, all of the DNA present in cells was found in the chromosomes. These findings were insufficient to establish DNA as the genetic material due to insufficiency in the chemical diversity that was required in genetic material. Contrastingly, as proteins existed in diverse forms, these were widely accepted as genetic material with an assumption of DNA being destined to function as structural support to the chromosomes. These assumptions were finally rectified by experiments carried out by Griffith and other scientists to prove that DNA is the genetic material.
eBook - PDFFundamentals of Biochemistry
Life at the Molecular Level
- Donald Voet, Judith G. Voet, Charlotte W. Pratt(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
Although the chemical and biological details of early life-forms are the subject of specula- tion, it is incontrovertible that life as we know it is inextricably linked to the chemistry of nucleotides and Nucleic Acids. In this chapter, we briefly examine the structures of nucleotides and the Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA. We also consider how the chemistry of these molecules allows them to carry biological information in the form of a sequence of nucleo- tides. This information is expressed by the transcription of a segment of DNA to yield RNA, which is then translated to form protein. Because a cell’s structure and function ultimately depend on its genetic makeup, we discuss how genomic sequences provide information about evolution, metabolism, and disease. Finally, 1 Nucleotides 2 Introduction to Nucleic Acid Structure A Nucleic Acids Are Polymers of Nucleotides B DNA Forms a Double Helix C RNA Is a Single-Stranded Nucleic Acid 3 Overview of Nucleic Acid Function A DNA Carries Genetic Information B Genes Direct Protein Synthesis 4 Nucleic Acid Sequencing A Restriction Endonucleases Cleave DNA at Specific Sequences B Electrophoresis Separates Nucleic Acids According to Size C Traditional DNA Sequencing Uses the Chain- Terminator Method D Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies Are Massively Parallel E Entire Genomes Have Been Sequenced F Evolution Results from Sequence Mutations 5 Manipulating DNA A Cloned DNA Is an Amplified Copy B DNA Libraries Are Collections of Cloned DNA C DNA Is Amplified by the Polymerase Chain Reaction D Recombinant DNA Technology Has Numerous Practical Applications Nucleotides, Nucleic Acids, and Genetic Information 1,031 1,441 2,980 8,443 1,635 278 Brachypodium 26,552 22,405 Rice 39,049 25,489 Sorghum 34,496 26,722 Barley fl-cDNA 23,585 17,345 Ae. tauschii 32,660 23,705 a 304 766 303 447 234 88 332 95 38 414 85 37 812 136 59 587 276 208 68 212 839 234 293 348 179 Jizeng Jia et al., Nature, 496, 91–95 (04 April 2013), doi:10.10138/nature/2028
- Robert B. Northrop, Anne N. Connor(Authors)
- 2008(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
6 Nucleic Acids and Their Functions . INTRODUCTION This.chapter.is.about.the.molecular.biology.of.the.nucleic.acids,.DNA.and.RNA . .As.we.have.stressed. in.earlier.chapters,.all.biological.macromolecules.have.natural,.complex.3-D.structures.in.which. the.interatomic.binding.energy.is.minimized;.DNA,.RNA,.and.proteins.are.no.exception . .Their.3-D.molecular.structures,.including. chirality ,.are.necessary.for.intermolecular.specificity.and.their. biochemical.and.physiological.activity . .Deoxyribonucleic.acid.(DNA).is.unique.in.that.it.appears.in. all .cells.today.(Prokaryotes,.Archaeans,.Eukaryotes).and.is.used.as.a.linear.programming.code.for. protein.and.RNA.synthesis.and.control.of.gene.expression . .Protein-coding.segments.of.DNA.are. called.genes;.they.are.also.called. exons. Portions.of.non–protein-coding.DNA.Nt.sequences,.called. introns, .are.also.implicated.in.con-trol.of.gene.expression,.and.hence,.regulation.of.embryological.development.and.cellular.metab-olism. . Some. introns. also. contain. the. information. for. the. synthesis. of. specific. ribonucleic. acid. molecules. .RNAs.generally.have.the.role.of.implementers.of.DNA.instructions,.and.some.serve.as. enzymes.or.catalysts . 6.1.1 DNA: T HE C OMMAND AND C ONTROL N UCLEIC A CID The.basic.organizational.unit.of.the.DNA.polymer.is.the. 2 ′ -deoxyribose .(a.sugar).molecule.cova-lently. bonded. to. one. of. two. pyrimidine bases .( cytosine . or. thymine ). or. one. of. two. purine bases ( adenine .or. guanine ). .The.bases.cytosine.( C ),.thymine.( T ),.adenine.( A ),.and.guanine.( G ).are.the. four. coding symbols .in.a.DNA.molecule’s.linear.genetic.code . .The.bonding.between.the.base.and. the.deoxyribose.sugar.involves.the.C 1 ′ .carbon.of.the.sugar.and.the.N 9 .nitrogen.of.a. purine base .(or. the.N 1 .nitrogen.of.a. pyrimidine base .in.an.N-β -glycosidic.linkage) .
eBook - PDF- Arne Engström, J. B. Finean(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Academic Press(Publisher)
C H A P T E R VII Role of Nucleic Acids Since the brilUant work of F. Miescher in the latter part of the 19th century, the Nucleic Acids have attracted constant attention because of their fundamental role in cellular metabolism and in inheritance. These Nucleic Acids are found in all living cells, both animal and plant. In the living organism they are invariably associated with proteins, and it is there-fore understandable that the Nucleic Acids have been thought to be involved in protein synthesis although no conclusive evidence for this has yet been presented. The Nucleic Acids are polymers, the monomers being nucleo-tides, which consist of a base (purine or pyrimidine), a sugar, and phosphate. A. The Structure of Nucleic Acids 1. T H E SUGAR COMPONENT In practically all Nucleic Acids so far analyzed the sugar component has been found to be either D -ribose or 2-deoxy -D -ribose (Fig. VII.1) and this has led to the differentiation of two main types of nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid ( R N A ) , and deoxyribonucleic acid ( D N A ) . From some points of view it may be preferable to use the generic terms pentose nucleic acid (PNA) and deoxypentose nucleic acid ( D N A ) . 2. T H E HETEROCYCLIC BASES, PURINES, AND PYRIMIDINES a. Bases in Pentose Nucleic Acid The following bases have been isolated from P N A : the purines, adenine and guanine, and the pyrimidines, uracil and cytosine. The chemical con-stitutions of these bases are given in Fig. VII.2. A complete X-ray crystallographic structure analysis has been made only of the purines, and their structures are given in Fig. VII .3. The two purine bases are very similar but in guanine the amino nitrogen (atom Nio) is dis-placed 0.11 A from the plane containing the other atoms. Furthermore, there is a difference in the C4 —Ce bond distances, that in adenine being the longer. In the adenine cation the hydrogen atoms are at C 2 , Cs, and Ν 9 , and two hydrogen atoms are at the amino nitrogen Ν 10 .
eBook - PDF- Donald Voet, Judith G. Voet(Authors)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
b The position of the phosphate group in a nucleotide may be explicitly specified as in, for example, 3′-AMP and 5′-GMP. 78 Chapter 4 Nucleic Acids, Gene Expression, and Recombinant DNA Technology The altered bases are generated by the sequence-specific enzymatic modification of normal DNA (Sections 4-7A and 25-7). The modified DNAs obey Chargaff’s rules if the derivatized bases are taken as equivalent to their parent bases. Likewise, many bases in RNAs and, in particu- lar, those in transfer RNAs (tRNAs; Section 27-2Aa) are derivatized. c. RNA but Not DNA Is Susceptible to Base- Catalyzed Hydrolysis RNA is highly susceptible to base-catalyzed hydrolysis by the reaction mechanism diagrammed in Fig. 4-3 so as to yield a mixture of 2′ and 3′ nucleotides. In contrast, DNA, which lacks 2′-OH groups, is resistant to base-catalyzed hydrolysis and is therefore much more chemically stable than RNA. This is probably why DNA rather than RNA evolved to be the cellular genetic archive. 2 DNA Is The Carrier of Genetic Information Nucleic Acids were first isolated in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher and so named because he found them in the nuclei of leukocytes (pus cells) from discarded surgical bandages. The presence of Nucleic Acids in other cells was demonstrated within a few years, but it was not until some 75 years after their discovery that their biological function was elucidated. Indeed, in the 1930s and 1940s it was widely held, in what was termed the tetranucleotide hypothesis, that Nucleic Acids have a monotonously repeating sequence of all four bases, so that they were not suspected of hav- ing a genetic function.
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