S Aureus

12 Key excerpts on "S Aureus"

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  Staphylococcus Aureus

  • Hassan Hemeg, Hani Ozbak, Farhat Afrin, Hassan Hemeg, Hani Ozbak, Farhat Afrin(Authors)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • IntechOpen

    (Publisher)

  Keywords: StaphylococcuS Aureus , MRSA, resistance, virulence, biofilm 1. Introduction Staphylococci are commensal bacteria that form part of microbiota of human and animal skin and mucous membranes. Among more than 40 species of the genus, StaphylococcuS Aureus is coloniz-ing the nostrils and skin of ~30% of the population [1, 2]. S. aureus is an opportunistic pathogen, © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. causing infections when it crosses the barriers of natural defense and escapes the mechanisms of anti-infectious protection. Factors favoring staphylococcal infections include local (lesions of the skin, the presence of implants, catheters, etc.) and general (innate or acquired deficiencies of the immune system such as complement system deficiencies, granulocytopenia, agranulocyto -sis, AIDS, diabetes, immunosuppressive treatments, etc.). It is able to cause a plethora of com-munity (CA) and health care (HA) infections, ranging from superficial skin infections to severe, and potentially fatal, invasive diseases [3–5] due to its ability to produce a spectrum of virulence factors and resistance to multiple antibiotics, frequently encoded by mobile genetic elements (MGEs) [6], which have eased the persistence of S. aureus in hospital environment [7]. S. aureus is causing skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), endovascular infections, pneumonia, septic arthritis, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, foreign-body infections, and sepsis [8]. S. aureus is the most commonly isolated bacteria from wound infections and studies involving patients with chronic venous leg ulcers found S. aureus positive cultures in 88–93.5% of infections [9].

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  Case Studies in Infectious Disease

  • Peter Lydyard, Michael Cole, John Holton, Will Irving, Nino Porakishvili, Pradhib Venkatesan, Kate Ward(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  S. saprophyticus. Of these, S. aureus is the most pathogenic. The highly conserved core genome of S. aureus that contains essential genes required for cellular metabolism and replication comprises only three-quarters of the total genome. The remaining one-quarter of the genome consists of mobile genetic elements such as pathogenicity islands, bacteriophages, chromosomal cassettes, transposons and plasmids, which are acquired by horizontal transfer. These extrachromosomal elements encode determinants of pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance and are not all present in every strain. They will be discussed below.

  S. aureus has a typical gram-positive cell wall that features a thick peptidoglycan layer extensively cross-linked with pentaglycine bridges. The extensive cross-linking makes the cell very resistant to drying so that staphylococci can survive on fomites (inanimate objects) for long periods of time. The wall also contains covalently bound teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid, which are anchored in the wall and cytoplasmic membrane respectively. There are a number of molecules exposed on the cell surface. These are either anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane and traverse the cell wall to the outside or they are anchored in the wall and extend from it (Figure 33.1 ). Among the important cell surface-exposed molecules of S. aureus are various microbial surface components that recognize adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMMs). These components recognize and bind various extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin, collagen, and fibrinogen (clumping factor), and the Fc region of mammalian IgG (protein A). In addition to wall-associated clumping factor that binds solid-phase fibrinogen, S. aureus secretes coagulase, which binds soluble fibrinogen. Coagulase binds prothrombin in a 1:1 molar ratio to form a complex termed staphylothrombin, which converts fibrinogen to fibrin. Because S. aureus is the only staphylococcal species that possesses coagulase and protein A their detection serves as a method to identify the bacterium (see Section 4 ). MSCRAMMs facilitate uptake of S. aureus

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  Vaccines E-Book

  Vaccines E-Book

  • Walter A. Orenstein, Paul A. Offit, Kathryn M. Edwards, Stanley A. Plotkin, Walter Orenstein(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Elsevier

    (Publisher)

  Fig. 55.1 ).

  Figure 55.1

  Virulence factors of StaphylococcuS Aureus .

  IgA, immunoglobulin A.

  (Modified from Lowy FD. Medical progress: StaphylococcuS Aureus infections. N Engl J Med . 1998;339:520–532.)

  Superficial and invasive S. aureus infections occur in previously healthy persons. Infections of the skin range from impetigo to abscess formation, cellulitis, or lymphadenitis, particularly of the cervical lymph nodes in children or adjacent to an infectious focus. S. aureus also may cause several important ocular infections, including conjunctivitis, preseptal cellulitis, and endophthalmitis. S. aureus is an important cause of endocarditis and is the leading cause in many regions of the world.34 The infected heart valves may have been previously normal, especially when the mitral or aortic valves are involved and the clinical manifestations may be particularly severe. Pericarditis may be an isolated syndrome or may accompany endocarditis.

  Hematogenous seeding of a bone or joint may result in osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, or even bursitis. S. aureus is a cause of several respiratory tract infections, including an occasional otitis media and pneumonia. The latter may be a severe, necrotizing process with high mortality. Central nervous system infections are infrequent and usually involve an assisted portal of entry for the organism, such as extension from an infected sinus, a dermal sinus, or a meningomyelocele. Central nervous system infectious syndromes also include subdural and epidural empyemas and even meningitis.35 A spinal epidural abscess adjacent to the dura also may be caused by S. aureus . S. aureus may rarely infect the urinary tract or be recovered from the urine of a patient with high-grade bacteremia or a renal abscess.

  S. aureus

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  New Generation Vaccines

  • Myrone M. Levine, Myron M. Levine, Gordon Dougan, Michael F. Good, Margaret A. Liu, Gary J. Nabel, James P. Nataro, Rino Rappuoli, Myrone M. Levine, Myron M. Levine, Gordon Dougan, Michael F. Good, Gary J. Nabel, James P. Nataro, Rino Rappuoli, Myrone M. Levine, Myron M. Levine, Gordon Dougan, Michael F. Good, Gary J. Nabel, James P. Nataro, Rino Rappuoli(Authors)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  The cumulative burden of S. aureus infection heightens the demand for vaccines that are capable of inducing protection against a wide array of disease manifestations within a broad population of individuals. This approach clearly necessitates the targeting of bacterial virulence factors that are essential to the pathogenesis of the organism, irrespective of the specific type of infection. Further, the current spectrum of disease observed in the pre-vaccine era requires novel strategies to facilitate early identification of the pathogen and the development of disease-specific immunotherapy to be used independently or in concert with antimicrobial drugs. PATHOGENESIS OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS Aureus INFECTION S. aureus achieves success as a pathogen through a combination of factors. First, its close relationship with the human host as a commensal positions the organism in immediate proximity to the tissues in which it is suited to cause disease. Indeed, colonization with S. aureus is a significant risk factor for the development of invasive disease (26–28). Second, the dynamic spread of the organism is facilitated primarily through person-to-person contact. The human population thereby serves as a ready conduit for transmission. Lastly, a number of virulence factors intrinsic to the organism work together in a concerted fashion to permit host tissue invasion, bacterial proliferation, and evasion of the host defense, culminating in the spread of the pathogen. Clinical Manifestations of Disease Essentially, every organ system and tissue of the human is susceptible to infection with S. aureus . The most common site of infection is the skin and soft tissues, however this pathogen also results in frequent infection of the deep tissues, causing pneumonia upon replication in the lungs, osteomyelitis of the skeletal system, and endocarditis when affecting the lining of the heart (29).

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  Genetics of Bacterial Polysaccharides

  • Joanna B. Goldberg(Author)
  • 1999(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  200 Future directions ................................................................................................. 202 Acknowledgments .............................................................................................. 202 References ............................................................................................................. 203 Introduction StaphylococcuS Aureus is a Gram-positive coccus that is recognized worldwide as an important opportunistic bacterial pathogen. The organism asymptom-atically colonizes the anterior nares of about 35% of normal healthy individ-uals. In addition, S. aureus can colonize the intestinal and vaginal mucosa, and it may reside transiently on the skin surface (primarily colonized by 186 Genetics of bacterial polysaccharides coagulase-negative staphylococci). If mucosal barriers are breached or host immune defenses are impaired, S. aureus may produce a diverse array of human and animal diseases. These range from rather mild skin infections, such as impetigo, folliculitis and furuncles, to more invasive diseases, such as infections originating from prosthetic devices, wound infections, osteo-myelitis, and bacteremia with metastatic complications. Toxin-mediated dis-eases caused by S. aureus include food poisoning, toxic shock syndrome, and scalded skin syndrome. The bacterial components and secreted products that affect the pathogenesis of S. aureus infections are numerous and include surface-associated adhesins, exoenzymes, exotoxins, and capsular polysac-charide. Capsule production by the staphylococcus was first described in 1931 by Gilbert. 1 Because capsule detection methods were crude (India ink neg-ative staining, colony morphology on agar plates and in serum-soft agar, and lack of cell-associated clumping factor), only a few strains of S.

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  Biosensors for Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases

  • Jayashankar Das, Sushma Dave, S. Radhakrishnan, Padmaja Mohanty(Authors)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  S. aureus in different matrices, being staphylococcal contamination which is a crucial concern worldwide.

  Keywords

  Antibiotic resistant bacteria; biosensors; nanomaterials; microfluidics; paper-based devices

  8.1 Introduction

  A widespread variety of pathogenic bacteria are present in the environment, food, water, and soil and may transmit foodborne infections to humans with millions of cases annually. According to the data published by European food safety authority (EFSA) and European Center for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), bacterial toxins were the second cause of foodborne outbreak in 2017, and in Italy they show an increasing trend [1] . Among pathogenic bacteria, StaphylococcuS Aureus is considered as one of the most remarkable risk for public health.

  S. aureus is a facultative, anaerobic, non-spore-forming, Gram-positive bacterium, widely spread in the environment, capable of surviving in hot and dry conditions and in fresh and saline environments.

  As a potential pathogen, S. aureus causes foodborne infections ranging from mild skin infections to post-operative wound infections. It is also associated with dermatitis, gastrointestinal tract infections, bacteremia and infective endocarditis. Some strains of S. aureus can develop resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin, which are widely used to treat infections, these strains are thus known as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA).

  Therefore, the analysis of the presence of S. aureus in food and environmental matrices is a crucial issue for minimizing the risks associated with public health and food safety. The EU system for monitoring and collecting information on zoonoses is based on the Zoonoses Directive 2003/99/EC1, which obliges European Union (EU) Member States (MS) to collect relevant and, when applicable, comparable data on zoonoses, zoonotic agents, antimicrobial resistance and foodborne outbreaks [2]

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  Antimicrobial Resistance and Food Safety

  Methods and Techniques

  • Chin-Yi Chen, Xianghe Yan, Charlene R. Jackson(Authors)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  S. aureus  208

  AST of S. aureus

   209

  Diffusion Methods  210

  Dilution Methods  211

  Specific Phenotypic Tests for S. aureus

   212

  Genotypic Detection of Antimicrobial Resistance  212

  PCR Assays for Resistance Genes  213

  DNA Microarray for the Detection of Resistance Genes  214

  Typing of S. aureus

   214

  Genotypic Typing Methods  215

  Sequence-Based Typing Methods  215

  PCR-Based Typing Methods  217

  Pattern-Based Typing Methods  218

  Phenotypic Typing Methods  218

  Typing by DNA Microarray  219

  Detection of Virulence Genes in S. aureus

   219

  PCR Assays for Virulence Genes  220

  Detection of Virulence Genes by DNA Microarray  220

  Examples for the Complex Characterization of S. aureus from Food-Producing Animals and Food of Animal Sources

   220

  Conclusions  225

  Acknowledgments  226

  References  226

  Introduction

  StaphylococcuS Aureus is a commensal colonizer of the skin in humans and animals and can also be found on mucous membranes of the body, particularly in the nose and the throat. About 20–30% of the human population is considered to be colonized by S. aureus (van Belkum et al., 2009 ). However, S. aureus can also cause severe infections. In humans, predominantly skin and soft tissue infections, but also bone, joint, and implant infections, necrotizing pneumonia, and septicemia are associated with S. aureus (Monecke et al., 2011 ). Moreover, S. aureus can produce a number of toxins which may be involved in specific diseases, such as toxic shock syndrome or staphylococcal food poisoning (Argudín et al., 2010b , 2012 ; Chiang et al., 2008 ). In animals, S. aureus can also cause a wide variety of infections, including skin infections, wound infections, and mastitis (Schwarz et al., 2013 ).

  S. aureus infections in humans and animals are commonly treated with antimicrobial agents. Due to the bacterium’s ability to acquire resistance genes, S. aureus isolates from humans and animals have gained a considerable number of resistance genes over the last 60 years (Wendlandt et al., 2013a ). This accumulation of resistance genes can be seen as the bacterium’s ability to effectively cope with changed environmental conditions. Meticillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), which also carry numerous other resistance genes, are of particular interest (Monecke et al., 2011 ). The dissemination of virulent and multi-resistant S. aureus

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  Food Microbiology

  Fundamentals and Frontiers

  • Michael P. Doyle, Francisco Diez-Gonzalez, Colin Hill, Michael P. Doyle, Francisco Diez-Gonzalez, Colin Hill(Authors)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • ASM Press

    (Publisher)

  The association of staphylococci with foodborne illness was made more than a century ago. Barber, in 1914, was the first to implicate a toxin in SFP (1). He reported that repeated ingestion of contaminated milk produced symptoms typical of the illness. Barber cultured the milk, demonstrated the presence of a putative causative staphylococcal agent, and provided the first evidence that a soluble toxin was responsible for the disease. The next major advance in understanding SFP etiology was reported in 1930 by Dack et al. (2); Dack voluntarily consumed supernatant fluids from cultures of “a yellow hemolytic staphylococcus” grown from contaminated sponge cake. Upon ingestion of the filtrates, he became ill with vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea. At that time, the only other foodborne toxin that had been recognized was botulinum toxin. However, staphylococcal toxin, which exerted an effect on the gastrointestinal tract, was the first true enterotoxin described. It was particularly different from botulinum toxin because its activity was “not entirely destroyed by heating even for 30 minutes at 100°C.”

  S. aureus has been extensively characterized. This bacterium produces a variety of extracellular products. Many of these, including the SEs, are virulence factors which have been implicated in diseases of humans and animals. As a group, the SEs elaborate a set of biological properties that enable staphylococci to cause at least two common human diseases, toxic shock syndrome (TSS) and SFP. This chapter primarily addresses SFP; however, there is significant overlap in the histories of both diseases. Hence, TSS is also discussed in sections in which this overlap is most relevant.

  CHARACTERISICS OF THE ORGANISM

  Taxonomy

  The term “staphylococci” describes a group of small spherical, Gram-positive bacteria. Depending on the species and culture conditions, their cells have diameters ranging from approximately 0.5 to 1.5 μm. They are catalasepositive chemoorganotrophs with a DNA guanine-plus-cytosine content of 30 to 40 mol%. Staphylococci have a typical Gram-positive cell wall containing peptidoglycan and teichoic acids. Except for clinical isolates, such as some community-acquired methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains (3) and strains exposed to antimicrobial therapy, most staphylococci are sensitive to β-lactams, tetracyclines, macrolides, lincosamides, novobiocin, and chloramphenicol but are resistant to polymyxin and polyene. Some differential characteristics of S. aureus and several other selected species of staphylococci are summarized in Table 21.1 .

  There have been many useful schemes for classification of the staphylococci. According to Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology (4), staphylococci are classified in the family Micrococcaceae. This family includes the genera Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Stomatococcus, and Planococcus. The genus Staphylococcus is further subdivided into 53 species. Many of these are present in food as a result of human, animal, or environmental contamination. Several species of Staphylococcus, including both coagulase-negative and coagulase-positive isolates, can produce SEs. Although several species, including some coagulase-negative staphylococci, have the potential to cause gastroenteritis (5), nearly all cases of SFP are attributed to S. aureus. This is because of the relatively high prevalence of SE production by S. aureus in comparison to other staphylococcal species. Although the reason for this is unknown, the SEs are superantigens (SAgs) and therefore are potential immunomodulating agents (see below). Hence, SE production is proposed to provide a selective advantage to S. aureus

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  Pathogenesis of Bacterial Infections in Animals

  • Carlton L. Gyles, John F. Prescott, J. Glenn Songer, Charles O. Thoen(Authors)
  • 2008(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  To date, this has only been well documented in human hospitals, but it may become more common as complex surgery and care of aged patients becomes more common in com- panion animal medicine. PATHOGENIC STAPHYLOCOCCUS SPECIES MAJOR P ATHOGENIC STAPHYLOCOCCUS SPECIES S. aureus is a well-documented human opportunistic pathogen. It may cause skin infections and also sep- ticemic infections and is important as the cause of toxic shock syndrome. S. aureus infections may be community acquired but are also important as noso- comial infections. An important impediment in the control of S. aureus infections is its antimicrobial resistance. Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a major clinical and epidemiological problem in human hospitals. MRSAs have a tendency to accu- mulate, besides their methicillin-resistance gene, additional unrelated resistance determinants in their genome. This has led to the evolution of MRSA strains resistant to almost all commonly used antibi- otics. These strains are rare in animal medicine. From the original description of MRSA in animals (Devriese and Hommez 1975) to the end of the twen- tieth century, only MRSA strains showing character- istics commonly seen in human epidemic strains were isolated. Animals apparently are infected by their human attendants. Typical animal strains of S. aureus are important pathogens in veterinary medicine, causing disease in cattle, small ruminants, poultry, rabbits, pigs, horses (Devriese 1990), and many other species as well. In cattle and small ruminants, S. aureus is one of the major causes of mastitis. Joint infections, osteomy- elitis, and septicemia due to S. aureus are described in poultry (McNamee and Smyth 2000). In rabbits, S. aureus mainly causes mastitis, exudative dermati- tis, subcutaneous abscesses, and pododermatitis (Okerman et al. 1984). Pigs may sporadically suffer from septicemia due to a S.

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  Gram-Positive Pathogens

  • Vincent A. Fischetti, Richard P. Novick, Joseph J. Ferretti, Daniel A. Portnoy, Mirian Braunstein, Julian I. Rood, Vincent A. Fischetti, Richard P. Novick, Joseph J. Ferretti, Daniel A. Portnoy, Mirian Braunstein, Julian I. Rood(Authors)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • ASM Press

    (Publisher)

  9 ).

  Despite the prevalence of literature characterizing staphylococcal pathogenesis in humans, S. aureus is a major cause of infection and disease in a plethora of animal hosts, leading to a significant impact on public health and agriculture (10 ). Infections in animals are deleterious to animal health, and animals can act as a reservoir for staphylococcal transmission to humans. While about 20 to 30% of the human population carries S. aureus , the prevalence of S. aureus varies from host species to host species, and up to 90% of chickens, 42% of pigs, 29% of sheep, and between 14 and 35% of cows and heifers are carriers (11 , 12 ). The economic importance of various animal species strongly determines the abundance of available literature on the subject, and as such, it is not surprising that S. aureus colonization and infection have only been superficially investigated in wild animals. Nevertheless, S. aureus has been isolated from a plethora of wildlife sources such as red squirrels (exudative dermatitis) (13 ), black bears (endocarditis) (14 ), zebras (cutaneous granuloma) (15 ), raccoons (botryomycosis) (16 ), dolphins (pyogenic meningoencephalitis) (17 ), harbor seals (systemic infections) (18 ), black rhinoceroses (skin lesion and sepsis) (19 ), boars (nasal carriage) (20 , 21 ), rhesus macaques (nasal carriage) (22 ), great apes (nasal carriage and sepsis) (23 ), chaffinches (healthy carriage) (24 ), mallards (sepsis) (25 ), red deer, griffon vultures, and Iberian ibex (carriage) (21 ).

  Animal isolates of S. aureus have been reported to exhibit distinct phenotypic properties that vary depending on the host of origin, and six biotypes have been described: human, β-hemolytic human, bovine, caprine, avian-abattoir, and non-host specific. These biotypes have, by and large, withstood the application of sophisticated characterization methods; isolates from different hosts, characterized by multilocus enzyme electrophoresis, cluster together, suggesting host specificity and a limited ability of strains to be transmitted from one host species to another (10 ). These observations were further corroborated by genotyping methods such as pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and strains belonging to specific biotypes grouped in the same or closely related pulsotypes (26

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  Frontiers in Staphylococcus aureus

  • Shymaa Enany, Laura E. Crotty Alexander, Shymaa Enany, Laura E. Crotty Alexander(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • IntechOpen

    (Publisher)

  Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1981; 19 :726–735. PMCID: PMC181513 StaphylococcuS Aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and... http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/67338 19 StaphylococcuS Aureus: Overview of Bacteriology, Clinical Diseases, Epidemiology, Antibiotic Resistance and... [39] Wielders CLC, Fluit AC, Brisse S, Verhoef J, Schmitz FJ. mecA Gene is widely dissemi -nated in StaphylococcuS Aureus population. J Clin Microbiol. 2002; 40 :3970–3975. PMCID: PMC139644 [40] Enright MC, Robinson DA, Randle G, Feil EJ, Grundmann H, Spratt BG. The evolution -ary history of methicillin-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus (MRSA). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002; 99 :7687–7692. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.122108599 [41] Hiramatsu K, Katayama Y, Matsuo M, Sasaki T, Morimoto Y, Sekiguchi A, Baba T. Multi-drug-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus and future chemotherapy. J Infect Chemother. 2014; 20 :593–601. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2014.08.001 [42] Ito T. Classification of Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCC mec ): guidelines for reporting novel SCC mec elements. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009; 53 (12):4961– 4967. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00579-09 [43] Ito T, Kuwahara-Arai K, Katayama Y, Uehara Y, Han X, Kondo Y, Hiramatsu K. Staphylococcal Cassette Chromosome mec (SCCmec) analysis of MRSA. Methods Mol Biol. 2014; 1085 :131–148. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-664-1_8 [44] Naimi TS, LeDell KH, Como-Sabetti K, Borchardt SM, Boxrud DJ, Etienne J, Johnson SK, Vandenesch F, MD, Fridkin S, O'Boyle C, Danila RN, Lynfield R. Comparison of com -munity- and health care-associated methicillin-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus infection. JAMA. 2003; 290 :2976–2984. DOI: 10.1001/jama.290.22.2976 [45] Fridkin SK, Hageman JC, Morrison M, Sanza LT, Como-Sabetti K, Jernigan JA, Harriman K, Harrison LH, Lynfield R Farley MM. Methicillin-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus disease in three communities.

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  Human Emerging and Re-emerging Infections

  • Sunit Kumar Singh(Author)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  J. Infect. Dis., 201, 1414–1421.
• Burian, M., Wolz, C., and Goerke, C. 2010b. Regulatory adaptation of StaphylococcuS Aureus during nasal colonization of humans. PLoS One, 5, e10040.
• Buyukcangaz, E., Velasco, V., Sherwood, J., Stepan, R., Koslofsky, R., and Logue, C. 2013. Molecular typing of StaphylococcuS Aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) isolated from animals and retail meat in North Dakota, United States. Foodborne Pathog. Dis., 10, 608–617.
• Cameron, D.R., Howden, B.P., and Peleg, A.Y. 2011. The interface between antibiotic resistance and virulence in StaphylococcuS Aureus and its impact upon clinical outcomes. Clin. Infect. Dis., 53, 576–582.
• Cañas-Pedrosa, A.M., Vindel, A., Artiles, F., Colino, E., and Lafarga, B. 2012. Antimicrobial resistance and molecular epidemiology of Panton-Valentine leukocidin–positive community-associated methicillin-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus from Gran Canaria (Canary Islands, Spain). Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 74, 432–434.
• Carpenter, C.F., and Chambers, H.F. 2004. Daptomycin: Another novel agent for treating infections due to drug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens. Clin. Infect. Dis., 38, 994–1000.
• Carter, N.J., and Scott, L.J. 2010. Besifloxacin ophthalmic suspension 0.6%. Drugs, 70, 83–97.
• Cary, S., Krishnan, M., Marion, T.N., and Silverman, G.J. 1999. The murine clan VH III related 7183, J606 and S107 and DNA4 families commonly encode for binding to a bacterial B cell superantigen. Mol. Immunol., 36, 769–776.
• CDC. 2003. Outbreaks of community-associated methicillin-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus skin infections–Los Angeles County, California, 2002–2003. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 52, 88–88.
• CDC. 2013. Methicillin-resistant StaphylococcuS Aureus (MRSA) infections.
• Chambers, H.F., and DeLeo, F.R. 2009. Waves of resistance: StaphylococcuS Aureus in the antibiotic era. Nat. Rev. Micro., 7, 629–641.
• Chambers, H.F., Korzeniowski, O.M., and Sande, M.A. 1983. StaphylococcuS Aureus endocarditis: Clinical manifestations in addicts and nonaddicts. Medicine