Ivan Pavlov

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  Theories of Development

  Concepts and Applications

  • William Crain(Author)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 8

  Learning Theory: Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner

   

  We have discussed theorists in the developmental tradition. These theorists believe that key developments are governed by internal forces—by biological maturation or by the individual’s own structuring of experience. In this and the following chapter, we will describe the work of some of the theorists in the opposing, Lockean tradition—learning theorists who emphasize the processes by which behavior is formed from the outside, by the external environment.

  PAVLOV AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

  Biographical Introduction

  The father of modern learning theory is Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936). Pavlov was born in Ryazan, Russia, the son of a poor village priest. Pavlov himself planned to become a priest until the age of 21, when he decided he was more interested in a scientific career. For many years he devoted his attention to physiological investigations, and in 1904 he won the Nobel Prize for his work on the digestive system. It was just a little before this time, when Pavlov was 50 years old, that he began his famous work on conditioned reflexes. This new interest came about through an accidental discovery about the nature of salivation in dogs. Ordinarily dogs salivate when food touches their tongues; this is an innate reflex. But Pavlov noticed that his dogs also salivated before the food was in their mouths; they salivated when they saw the food coming, or even when they heard approaching footsteps. What had happened was that the reflex had become conditioned to new, formerly neutral stimuli.

  For a while Pavlov could not decide whether to pursue the implications of his new discovery or to continue with his earlier research. Finally, after a long struggle with himself, he began studying the conditioning process. Still, Pavlov believed that he was working as a physiologist, not a psychologist. In fact, Pavlov required that everyone in his laboratory use only physiological terms. If his assistants were caught using psychological language—referring, for example, to a dog’s feelings or knowledge—they were fined (R. Watson, 1968, pp. 408–412).

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  Learning and Behavior

  • James E. Mazur, Amy L. Odum(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 3 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning

  DOI: 10.4324/9781003215950-3

  Learning Objectives

  After reading this chapter, you should be able to

  • describe the procedure of classical conditioning and some of the most common ways it is studied in the laboratory
  • explain Pavlov’s stimulus substitution theory and describe its strengths and weaknesses
  • describe the basic principles of classical conditioning including acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, conditioned inhibition, generalization, and discrimination
  • explain how the timing of the stimuli in classical conditioning affects the results
  • give examples of classical conditioning that are found in everyday life
  • describe some behavior therapies that are based on classical conditioning and evaluate their effectiveness.

  Pavlov’s Discovery and Its Impact

  The Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov is one of the most famous figures in the history of psychology. Pavlov was interested in the various substances secreted by an animal’s digestive system to break down the food eaten, including saliva. He used dogs in his research, and he developed a surgical technique that enabled him to redirect the saliva from one of the dog’s salivary ducts through a tube and out of the mouth so that it could be measured (see Figure 3.1 ). A dog might receive several test sessions on successive days. In each session the animal would be given food, and its salivation would be recorded as it ate. Pavlov’s important observation came when studying dogs that had been through the testing procedure several times. Unlike a new dog, an experienced one would begin to salivate even before the food was presented. Although it was not the focus of his research originally, Pavlov noticed this curious phenomenon and began to study it. Pavlov reasoned that some stimuli that always preceded the presentation of food, such as the sight of the experimenter, had developed the ability to elicit the response of salivation. Pavlov concluded that his dogs were exhibiting a simple type of learning: Salivation, which began as a reflexive response to the stimulus of food in the dog’s mouth, was now elicited by a new stimulus. This phenomenon is now known as classical conditioning

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  An Introduction to Theories of Learning

  • Matthew H. Olson, Julio J. Ramirez(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  This work resulted in a book entitled Conditioned Reflexes and Psychiatry (1941), which many consider a significant contribution to psychiatry. At the time Thorndike was doing his major research, Pavlov was also investigating the learning process. He, too, was impatient with subjective psychology and, in fact, had almost decided not to study the conditioned reflex because of its “psychic” nature. Although Pavlov (1928) did not have a high opinion of psychologists, he had considerable respect for Thorndike and acknowledged him as the first to do systematic research on the learning process in animals: Some years after the beginning of the work with our new method I learned that somewhat similar experiments on animals had been performed in America, and indeed not by physiologists but by psychologists. Thereupon I studied in more detail the American publications, and now I must acknowledge that the honour of having made the first steps along this path belongs to E. L. Thorndike. By two or three years his experiments preceded ours, and his book must be considered as a classic, both for its bold outlook on an immense task and for the accuracy of its results. (pp. 38–40) Figure 7.2 Saliva flowed from Pavlov’s dog’s mouth through a tube and into a graduated cylinder so that the magnitude of the salivation response could be measured with precision. Source : Illustrated by Bonnie J. Sather. 168 PREDOMINANTLY ASSOCIATIONISTIC THEORIES Thorndike and Pavlov, although traveling two different paths in many respects, shared an enthusiasm about science and a belief in its ultimate ability to solve major human problems: “Only science, exact science about human nature itself, and the most sincere approach to it by the aid of the omnipotent scientific method, will deliver man from his present gloom, and will purge him from his contemporary shame in the sphere of interhuman relations” (Pavlov, 1928, p. 28).

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  Foundations of Behavioral Therapy

  • Donald Levis(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  thought of it.” As part of his lecture series in Paris around 1855, Claude Bernard described the experimental demonstration of salivary conditioning in the horse under controlled conditions (see Rosenzweig, 1959). However, the difference between the reports of Pavlov and most of his predecessors in conditioning is crucial. Whereas virtually all earlier investigators confined their endeavors to the sporadic demonstration of already established conditional responses, Pavlov was one of the first to initiate a program of investigation that included the systematic study of the formation and extinction of new and deliberately induced conditional reflexes.

  If any one scientist can be singled out for his influence upon Pavlov, it is Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology and the discoverer of the phenomenon of central inhibition (and, incidentally, a student of Bernard, whose interest in the process of conditioning has been mentioned above). Like many of his predecessors who had thought about the nature of acquired associations, Sechenov was a convinced monist and materialist. But just as Pavlov was later to continue the line of thought of earlier observers of conditioning, but with the key difference already noted—so Sechenov, by his practical investigations of the phenomenon of central inhibition, was among the first to replace philosophical deliberation and incidental observation with experimentation. As is well known, this course steered him into trouble with the tzarist government, culminating in a clash with the censor over the proposed title of his now famous monograph. Sechenov was forced to relinquish the more revealing–and therefore, from the censor’s point of view, more dangerously “antireligious” -An Attempt to Establish the Physiological Bases of Psychical Phenomena in favor of the safer and more prosaic Reflexes of the Brain,

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  A History of Psychology

  Globalization, Ideas, and Applications

  • Robert B. Lawson, E. Doris Anderson, Antonio Cepeda-Benito(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  Petersburg in 1870. Pavlov earned his MD in 1883 and his career leapt forward when he was appointed to the chair of pharmacology at the St. Petersburg Military Academy in 1891, where he organized the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg. Thereafter, he was appointed professor of physiology at the University of St. Petersburg in 1895. Pavlov (1902/1897) was awarded the Nobel Prize in physiology for his Lectures on the Work of the Digestive Glands, and finally in 1907 was elected a full member of the Russian Academy of Science. (See Chapter 16 for further details about I. P. Pavlov.) Basic Pavlovian Conditioning For his Nobel Prize address, Pavlov, rather than describe his research on the digestive tract, for which he was awarded the prize, focused upon his latest work on what he called psychical stimuli. Pavlov came to realize through his studies concerning the pairing of neutral stimuli with feeding that he was working with two types of salivary reflexes, both of which were caused by physiological responses of the nervous system. The foundational physiological response was the unconditioned response (UCR) caused by the natural stimulation of the oral cavity. The second reflex, conditioned responses (CR), could activate areas other than the oral cavities (i.e., eyes, ears, and/or nose; Pavlov, 1955). The next step was to explain the relationship between the two types of responses. He described the paradigm in terms of an unconditioned stimulus (US), a biological stimulus that has the capacity to elicit automatically a reflex activity that yields the UCR, whereas a conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that was at one time a neutral stimulus but through repeated pairings with the US elicits a CR similar to the UCR

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  Applications of Conditioning Theory

  • Graham Davey(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Taylor & Francis

    (Publisher)

  6 Pavlovian principles and behaviour therapy

  Glyn Thomas and Mark O'Callaghan

  In the early years of the present century, J.B. Watson claimed that human behaviour was nothing more than long sequences of conditioned reflexes. Fifty years on, W.F. Brewer (1974) felt able to argue that there was no convincing evidence for classical conditioning in adult humans.

  The present chapter attempts to trace the fluctuating fortunes of Pavlovian (classical) conditioning as a model for analysis and treatment in clinical settings (behaviour therapy). Firstly, we provide a brief historical survey of clinical applications of Pavlovian conditioning. Secondly, taking the treatment of fear and anxiety as an illustration, we evaluate the clinical success of these applications. Finally, we attempt to relate current practices of behaviour therapy to recent theories of Pavlovian conditioning.

  Historical survey

  Experimentally, Pavlovian conditioning is achieved by pairing two stimuli without regard to the subject's behaviour. We can illustrate this procedure with Watson and Rayner's (1920) classic study of conditioned fear in a human infant (Little Albert). At the time of the study, Albert was eleven months old. Earlier, when he was presented with a white rat he showed no sign of fear. After seven pairings of the rat (conditioned stimulus) with a distressingly loud noise (unconditioned stimulus), Albert showed clear signs of fear when the white rat was presented alone. Watson and Rayner (1920) interpreted this result as a clear demonstration of the process by which fears of specific objects (phobias) are learned in everyday circumstances.

  Experiments which have attempted to repeat Watson and Rayner's demonstration have met with varying success. Whatever the status of its empirical support Watson and Rayner's study has become an influential legend in the history of clinical psychology; that the development of emotional responses can be represented in terms of Pavlovian principles.

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  A History of Modern Psychology

  • C. James Goodwin(Author)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  This lent itself more readily to Watson’s interests in overt behavior, which of course relies on muscle action. Pavlov’s major impact on American psychology began in the 1920s, when much of his work was translated into English for the first time, in the lecture series described earlier. Pavlov also visited the United States twice, once in 1923 for a conference and lecture series at Rockefeller Institute in New York, and again in 1929 for the Ninth International Congress of Psychology at Yale University. At the latter he delivered one of the major invited addresses (Duncan, 1980), an impassioned description (in Russian) of his research on conditioning to a large audience of American and international psy- chologists. As one observer noted, “the audience was spellbound, and the following standing ovation brought little smiles and bows of appreciation from the Guest of Honor of the Congress” (Withington, quoted in Duncan, 1980). At the Yale conference was Walter Miles, who subsequently had a more per- sonal encounter with the famous Russian. FROM THE MILES PAPERS. . . MILES ENTERTAINS PAVLOV Walter Miles was in the audience when Pavlov spoke at Yale Conference on the evening of September 2, 1929, writing to a colleague that “Pavlov delivered a rather notable address in Russian which was translated by Anrep who had no manuscript at his disposal” (Miles, 1929d). G. V. Anrep was a former student of Pavlov’s and, as mentioned earlier, the translator of Pavlov’s Conditioned Reflexes (Pavlov, 1927/1960). Miles got a much closer look at Pavlov the following evening. James McKeen Cattell (Chapter 7), who presided over the conference, hosted a party for Pavlov on the evening of September 3. Just over dozen psychologists and physiologists attended, and the main event was the showing of two films made by Miles of rats in his labora- tory navigating elevated mazes (Figure 10.4). One film showed normal rats; in the second, the rats had been given alcohol.

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  Contributions to a History of Developmental Psychology

  International William T. Preyer Symposium

  • Georg Eckardt, Wolfgang G. Bringmann, Lothar Sprung, Georg Eckardt, Wolfgang G. Bringmann, Lothar Sprung(Authors)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • De Gruyter Mouton

    (Publisher)

  No significant differences were obtained in reaction times, even though previous research had found consistent differences in motor conditioning between normal and behavior-dis-ordered adults (Wortis et al. 1973). The preceding discussion points to a single, clear difference between early studies and modern research. Current experimentation is more concerned with the objective tests of Pavlovian theory, and less with a strict adherence to a traditional conditioning methodology (Gray 1979). This trend has produced a greater breadth of research in recent years and has contributed to a new appreciation for the rich inheritance that Pavlov has left to child and developmental psychology. The application of the Pavlovian paradigm to child and developmental psychology in America occurred slowly and with diffi-culty. Before 1920 the major research technique for child behav-ior involved controlled observation (i.e. case histories, clinical, and mental assessment, and naturalistic observation). Florence Mateer's doctoral dissertation stands out as the single exception until Pavlov's work became more accessible to American psychology about 1930. The developmental significane of the conditioned reflex and the application of the conditioned reflex applied to behavior disorders became the focus of attention for experimentation through about 1950. Modern research reflects efforts to test the Pavlovian theory of behavior to the traditional conditioning paradigm in such areas as the diagnosis and treatment of childhood disorders, the analysis of covert behavior accom-panying speech, and the learning of voluntary and autonomically-me-diated conditioned responses. Pavlovian Conditioning in Developmental Psychology 339 References Ackerman,P.T., Holcomb.P.J., McGray.D.S. and Dykman,R.A. (1982) Studies of nervous system sensitivity in children with learning and attention disorders. Pavl. J. Biol. Sci. 17:30-41. Babkin,B.P. (1949) Pavlov: A biography.

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  Psychology in Action

  • Karen R. Huffman, Katherine Dowdell, Catherine A. Sanderson(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Classical Conditioning 187 FIGURE 6.1 Pavlov’s experimental setup Harness (to restrict movement by subject) Tube for collecting saliva from subject’s mouth Amount of saliva recorded here experiences, previous bad habits and problem behav- iors can be replaced with new, more adaptive ones (Bull et al., 2017; Cheng et al., 2017; Gardner et al., 2016). Thus, to break the bad habit of texting while driving, you can force yourself to turn off your phone before starting the car (as we’re reminded to do before a movie begins). Instead of procrastinating when it’s time to study, you can practice the study skills sprinkled throughout this text. We begin this chapter with a study of one of the earli- est forms of learning, classical conditioning, made famous by Pavlov’s salivating dogs. Beginnings of Classical Conditioning Why does your mouth water when you stare at a large slice of delicious cake or a juicy steak? The answer to this question was accidentally discovered in the laboratory of Russian physiolo- gist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936). Pavlov’s initial plan was to study the role of saliva in digestion by using a tube attached to dogs’ salivary glands (Figure 6.1). During these experiments, one of Pavlov’s students noticed that even before receiving the actual food, many dogs began salivating at the mere sight of the food, the food dish, the smell of the food, or even just the sight of the person who normally delivered the food! Pavlov’s genius was in recognizing the importance of this “unscheduled” salivation. He realized that the dogs were not only responding on the basis of hunger (a biological need), but also as a result of experience or learning. Excited by this accidental discovery, Pavlov and his students conducted several experi- ments, including sounding a tone on a tuning fork just before food was placed in the dogs’ mouths. After several pairings of the tone and food, dogs in the laboratory began to salivate on hearing the tone alone.

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  Test File to Accompany Essentials of Psychology

  • Sarah Rundle(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 4: LEARNING AND CONDITIONING. 1. The study of learning processes is a. largely independent of other fields of psychology. *b. an important element in many fields of psychology, (p. 127) c. related to developmental psychology and to perception but not to fields like personality and abnormal psychology. d. of theoretical interest but has little relationship to the every day affairs of humans. A DEFINITION OF LEARNING 2. According to Kimble's definition of learning, if you know how to tie your shoes it is because a. someone showed you how. b. your coordination improved until you were able to do it. *c. you were rewarded for shoe tying, (p. 127) d. you figured out how to do it by watching someone. 3. Learning is defined as a change in a. the physiology of the brain. *b. behavior potentiality, (p. 127) c. what one knows or knows how to do. d. the amount of information stored and the manner in which the information is organized. 4. The most controversial aspect of Kimble's definition of learning is the specification that a. learning will not occur without practice. b. learning refers to the potential for behavior rather than to behavior that actually occurs. c. learning represents some type of change. *d. practice must be reinforced, (p. 127) 5. Kimble's definition of learning refers to changes in behavior potentiality. This means that *a. behavior is not always an accurate indicator of whether learning has occurred, (p. 127) b. learning cannot be inferred from the observation of behavior. c. learning cannot be directly reinforced. d. all of the potential for learning cannot be tapped. 6. Kimble's definition of learning specifies that learning takes place as a result of a. maturation. b. fluctuations in motivational states. *c. reinforced practice, (p. 127) d. All of the above result in learning, according to Kimble. 51 52 CHAPTER 4 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov's Experiments 7. Pavlov's experiment involved a dog learning to a. eat meat powder.

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  Reinforcement and Behavior

  • Jack T. Tapp(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  B. F. Skinner (1904-) The first and best systematic treatment of the empirical law of ef-fect was given by Skinner (1938) before the law had been named. It issued from his general analysis of the requirements for an objective science of behavior and was not, therefore, a special effort to improve upon Thorndike's law. The position he adopted on reinforcement was only a part, albeit an important one, of his overall descriptive empiri-cism. Because Skinner was impressed with Watson's insistence that an independent science of behavior was possible (Skinner, 1959), he set himself the goal of constructing a framework for it. By an indepen-dent science of behavior Skinner meant, as Watson had, that behavior should be studied in its own right. He saw no place in such a science for fictional, explanatory entities of either the mental or the neuro-logical kind. The scientific goal was to discover the empirical varia-bles of which behavior is a function and to relate them to behavior through descriptive laws. He advanced the idea, therefore, that psy-chologists should give up the search for the internal, physiological reasons for changes in response strength, and look for direct relation-ships between the occurrence of observable events and changes in the probability that a given response would occur. 30 Hardy C. Wilcoxon Pavlov's work was seen as important and admirable, but rather lim-ited. Skinner particularly admired Pavlov's careful control of experi-mental conditions. As he put it years later, Pavlov had shown the way; but I could not then, as I cannot now, move without a jolt from salivary reflexes to the important business of the organism in everyday life (Skinner, 1959, p. 362). Skinner dealt with Pavlovian condition-ing, therefore, as a limited kind of learning—the learning of elicited, or respondent reflexes. He designated it Type S to emphasize the importance of the stimulus in eliciting the reflexes.

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