Technology & Engineering
Iron Metal
Iron metal is a metallic element with the chemical symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is known for its strength, durability, and ability to be magnetized. Iron is widely used in engineering and technology for construction, machinery, tools, and transportation infrastructure. Its properties make it a crucial material in various industrial applications, including the production of steel.
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eBook - PDFConstruction Materials, Methods, and Techniques
Building for a Sustainable Future
- Eva Kultermann, William Spence, Eva Kultermann(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Ferrous Metals L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: ● Explain the processes for mining and processing iron ore and for producing pig iron and steel. ● Develop knowledge of the properties of ferrous metals to consider when making material selection decisions. ● Be familiar with the various steel identification systems and the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys. restricting the spans that could be achieved. The stiffness of steel enables designers to achieve much greater spans and heights than is possible in either wood or masonry construction. In engineering terms, there is almost no limit to what steel can achieve. Ferrous metals are those in which the chief ingredient is the chemical element iron (ferrum). Iron (chemical symbol Fe), mixed with other minerals, is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. To be useful, iron must be extracted from mined ore, have impurities removed and ingredients added to alter its properties, and finally be formed into usable products. Ferrous metal products are widely used in the construction industry. They are a leading construction material, and archi- tects, engineers, and contractors should be familiar with the various types available, their properties, and the proper appli- cations for each. Although a ferrous metal product can fail, this usually does not occur because it is a poor material but rather because the type of ferrous metal chosen for a particular appli- cation was incorrect. When the properties of a ferrous metal are known, its performance can be accurately determined during the engineering design process. IRON Iron is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. Pure iron, free from impurities and other elements, is ductile and soft but generally not strong enough for structural purposes. It has good magnetic properties but oxidizes (rusts) easily and does not resist attack by acids and some chemicals.
eBook - PDFFundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
Materials, Processes, and Systems
- Mikell P. Groover(Author)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
94 P A R T 6 6.1 Alloys and Phase Diagrams 6.1.1 Alloys 6.1.2 Phase Diagrams 6.2 Ferrous Metals 6.2.1 The Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram 6.2.2 Iron and Steel Production 6.2.3 Steels 6.2.4 Cast Irons 6.3 Nonferrous Metals 6.3.1 Aluminum and Its Alloys 6.3.2 Magnesium and Its Alloys 6.3.3 Copper and Its Alloys 6.3.4 Nickel and Its Alloys 6.3.5 Titanium and Its Alloys 6.3.6 Zinc and Its Alloys 6.3.7 Lead and Tin 6.3.8 Refractory Metals 6.3.9 Precious Metals 6.4 Superalloys Part II covers the four types of engineering materials: (1) metals, (2) ceramics, (3) polymers, and (4) composites. Metals are the most important engineering materials and the topic of this chap- ter. A metal is a category of materials generally characterized by properties of ductility, malleability, luster, and high electrical and thermal conductivity. The category includes both metallic elements and their alloys. Metals have properties that satisfy a wide variety of design requirements. The manufacturing pro- cesses by which they are shaped into products have been devel- oped and refined over many years; indeed, some of the processes date from ancient times (see Historical Note 1.2 at www.wiley .com/college/groover). In addition, the properties of metals can be enhanced through heat treatment, covered in Chapter 26. The technological and commercial importance of metals derives from the following general properties possessed by vir- tually all of the common metals: • High stiffness and strength. Metals can be alloyed for high strength, and hardness; thus, they are used to provide the structural framework for most engineered products. • Toughness. Metals have the capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of materials. Metals II ENGINEERING MATERIALS • Good electrical conductivity. Metals are conductors because of their metallic bonding that per- mits the free movement of electrons as charge carriers.
- Stephen E. Kesler, Adam C. Simon(Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
C H A P T E R 8 Iron, steel, and the ferroalloy metals Iron and steel form the framework for civilization. Steel is a major component of cars, cans, ships, bridges, buildings, appliances, and armament. Even energy minerals are useless without furnaces, pipelines, engines, and reactors that are usually made of steel. This wide range of uses re fl ects the abundance of iron ore and the relative ease with which it can be converted to steel. The simplest form, carbon steel, contains less than 2% carbon, with minor manganese. Alloy steel, in which carbon is removed and other metals are mixed with iron ( Table 8.1 ), accounts for about 15% of world production. These metals are known as ferroalloy metals and include chromium, manganese, nickel, silicon, cobalt, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, and niobium and they permit steel to be used in a wide variety of applications. Annual world iron ore and steel production are worth about $300 billion each ( Figure 8.1a ). The value of ferroalloy metal production can be quoted in several ways because they are traded as ores, intermediate alloys such as ferromanganese and ferrochromium, and metals. Total world production, worth about $120 billion, is dominated by nickel, manganese, and chromium ( Figure 8.1b , c ). Prices of ferroalloy metals are higher than that of steel and thus increase its cost ( Figure 8.1b , c ). Even so, the properties that they impart are so important that consumption for most of them has increased more rapidly than steel, re fl ecting growth of alloy steel production ( Figure 8.1d , e ). Major producers and their reserves are summarized in Table 8.1 and important mines of most metals are given in Table 8.2 . 8.1 Iron and steel Steel is produced in 87 countries, making it one of the most widely produced mineral commodities (Fenton, 2011). Only about 42 countries produce iron ore, re fl ecting the more limited distribution of large iron deposits that can support steel making (Tuck and Virta, 2011).
- J. T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
These materials made possible the Industrial Revolution 150 years ago, and they continue to be the backbone of modern civilization. We see them everywhere in our lives—in the buildings where we work, the cars we drive, the homes in which we live, the cans we open, and the appliances that enhance our standard of living. Numerous varieties have been developed over the years Cast Irons Plain-Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Gray Irons Low-Carbon Low-Alloy Steels Malleable Iron Medium-Carbon HSLA Steels Ductile Iron High-Carbon Advanced High-Strength Steels Compacted Graphite Iron Maraging Steels Microalloyed Steels Austempered Ductile Iron Stainless Steels White Iron Tool Steels Ferrous Metal Alloys FIGURE 6.1 | Classification of common ferrous metals and alloys. Ferrous Metals and Alloys C H A P T E R 102 CHAPTER 6 Ferrous Metals and Alloys to meet the specific needs of various industries. These devel- opments and improvements have continued, with recent decades seeing the introduction of a number of new varie- ties and even classes of ferrous metals. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute, the number of available grades of steel has doubled since 2000. The newer steels are stronger than ever, rolled thinner, easier to shape, and more corrosion resistant. As a result, steel still accounts for more than half of the metal used in an average vehicle in North America. In addition, all steel is recyclable, and this recycling does not involve any loss in material quality. In fact, more steel is recycled each year than all other materials combined, includ- ing aluminum, glass, plastic, and paper. Because steel is mag- netic, it is easily separated and recovered from demolished buildings, junked automobiles, and discarded appliances. The overall recycling rate for steel is approximately 88%–92.5% for automobiles, 90% for appliances, and 72% for steel packaging. Structural beams and plates are the most recycled products at 97.5%.
eBook - PDF- Mikell P. Groover(Author)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
Of course, these properties are also important in product design. Chapter 4 is con- cerned with several part and product attributes that are specified in product design and achieved in manufacturing: dimensions, tolerances, and surface finish. The appendix to Chapter 4 describes how these attributes are measured. 15 2.1 METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS Metals are the most important engineering materials. A metal is a category of materials generally characterized by properties of ductility, malleability, luster, and high electrical and thermal conductivity. The category includes both metallic elements and their alloys. Metals have properties that satisfy a wide variety of design requirements. The manu- facturing processes by which they are shaped into products have been developed and refined over many years. The technological and commercial importance of metals is due to the following general properties possessed by virtually all of the common metals: å High stiffness and strength. Metals can be alloyed for high rigidity, strength, and hardness; thus, they are used to provide the structural framework for most engi- neered products. å Toughness. Metals have the capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of materials. å Good electrical conductivity. Metals are conductors because of their metallic bonding that permits the free movement of electrons as charge carriers. å Good thermal conductivity. Metallic bonding also explains why metals generally conduct heat better than ceramics or polymers. In addition, certain metals have specific properties that make them attractive for specialized applications. Many common metals are available at relatively low cost per unit weight and are often the material of choice simply because of their low cost. Although some metals are important as pure elements (e.g., gold, silver, copper), most engineering applications require the improved properties obtained by alloying.
- J. T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser(Authors)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
CHAPTER 6 87 6.1 Introduction to History- Dependent Materials Engineering materials are available with a wide range of useful properties and characteristics. Some of these are inherent to the particular material, but many others can be varied by controlling the manner of production and the details of processing. Metals are classic examples of such “history-dependent” materials. The final properties are clearly affected by their past processing his- tory. The particular details of the smelting and refining process control the resulting purity and the type and nature of any influ- ential contaminants. The solidification process imparts struc- tural features that might be transmitted to the final product. Preliminary operations such as the rolling of sheet or plate often impart directional variations to properties, and their impact should be considered during subsequent processing and use. Thus, although it is easy to take the attitude that “metals come from warehouses,” it is important to recognize that aspects of their prior processing can significantly influence further opera- tions as well as the final properties of a product. The breadth of this book does not permit full coverage of the processes and methods involved in the production of engineering metals, but certain aspects will be presented because of their role in affect- ing subsequent performance. 6.2 Ferrous Metals In this chapter, we will introduce the major ferrous (iron-based) metals and alloys, summarized in Figure 6.1. These materials made possible the Industrial Revolution 150 years ago, and they continue to be the backbone of modern civilization. We see them everywhere in our lives—in the buildings where we work, the cars we drive, the homes in which we live, the cans we open, and the appliances that enhance our standard of living. Numer- ous varieties have been developed over the years to meet the specific needs of various industries.
eBook - PDFParts Fabrication
Principles and Process
- Richard Crowson(Author)
- 2006(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
27 Materials Characteristics of Metals Jack M. Walker 2.0 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS Modern industry is dependent on a knowledge of metallurgy. Nearly every kind of manufacturing today is affected by the behavior of metals and alloys. Therefore, anyone who plans a career in modern industry will find a working knowledge of metallurgical processing to be a valuable asset. Today’s manufacturing engineer may not need to be a materials engineer or met-allurgist, in addition to all the other skills that he or she uses in the broader role that we have discussed in several chapters of this handbook. However, to understand the forming, chip cutting, and processing principles involved in fabricating parts of metal, and in order to participate in a product design team, introductory background information is essential. Some of us are quite familiar with the terms and properties of many of the common metals, while others are specialists in different fields and need an overview of the subject. The approach the author has taken in this chapter is to introduce the materials most commonly used, and provide an explanation of the properties that make a particular material or alloy a desirable choice for a specific application. It will make a difference in the machines selected, the design of the tooling, and the cost of the part fabrication and finishing. Different materials require different heat treatments and different surface finishes. Subchapter 2.1 discusses metallurgy, 2.2 introduces iron and steel (ferrous metals), 2.3 talks about aluminum and other non-ferrous materials, and 2.4 describes the peculiarities of magnesium. 2.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF METALLURGY Metallurgy is the art and science concerned with metals and their alloys.
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