Technology & Engineering
Ferrous Alloys
Ferrous alloys are metallic materials that contain iron as the primary constituent, along with other elements such as carbon, manganese, and silicon. These alloys are known for their strength, durability, and magnetic properties, making them widely used in engineering and technology applications. Common examples of ferrous alloys include steel and cast iron, which are essential in construction, manufacturing, and transportation industries.
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11 Key excerpts on "Ferrous Alloys"
eBook - PDF- William Bolton(Author)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Newnes(Publisher)
3 Ferrous Alloys 3.1 Materials Alloys The term Ferrous Alloys is used for all those alloys having iron as the major constituent. Pure iron is a relatively soft material and is hardly of any commercial use in that state. Alloys of iron with carbon are classified according to their carbon content as shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 Alloys of iron with carbon Material Percentage carbon Wrought iron 0 to 0.05 Steel 0.05 to 2 Cast iron 2 to 4.3 The term carbon steel is used for those steels in which essentially just iron and carbon are present. The term alloy steel is used where other elements are included. Stainless steels are one form of alloy steel which has high percentages of chromium in order to give it a high resistance to corrosion. The term tool steels is used to describe those steels, carbon or alloy, which are capable of being hardened and tempered and have suitable properties for use as a tool material. The following is an alphabetical listing of the various types of Ferrous Alloys. Alloy steels The term low alloy is used for alloy steels when the alloying addi-tions are less than 2%, medium alloy between 2 and 10% and high alloy when over 10%. In all cases the amount of carbon is less than 1%. Common elements that are added are aluminium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorus, silicon, sulphur, titanium, tungsten and vanadium. There are a number of ways in which the alloying elements can have an effect on the properties of the steel. The main effects are to: 1 Solution harden the steel 2 Form carbides 3 Form graphite 4 Stabilize austenite or ferrite 5 Change the critical cooling rate 6 Improve corrosion resistance 7 Change grain growth 8 Improve machinability See Coding system for steels, Composition of alloy steels, Creep properties, Machinability, Oxidation resistance , Mechanical properties of alloy steels, Thermal properties and Uses of alloy steels.
eBook - PDFMaterials Science and Engineering
An Introduction
- William D. Callister, Jr., David G. Rethwisch(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
In addition, access to databases containing property values for a large number of materials may be required. On occasion, fabrication and processing procedures adversely affect some of the properties of metals. For example, in Section 10.8 we note that some steels may become embrittled during tempering heat treatments. Also, some stainless steels are made susceptible to intergranular corrosion (Section 17.7) when they are heated for long time periods within a specific temperature range. In addition, as we discuss in Section 11.6, regions adjacent to weld junctions may experience decreases in strength and toughness as a result of undesirable microstructural alterations. It is important that engineers become familiar with possible consequences attendant to processing and fabricating procedures in order to prevent unanticipated material failures. 348 • 11.2 Ferrous Alloys • 349 Metal alloys, by virtue of composition, are often grouped into two classes—ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous Alloys, those in which iron is the principal constituent, include steels and cast irons. These alloys and their characteristics are the first topics of discus- sion of this section. The nonferrous ones—all alloys that are not iron based—are treated next. Types of Metal Alloys Ferrous Alloys —those in which iron is the prime constituent—are produced in larger quantities than any other metal type. They are especially important as engineering construction materials. Their widespread use is accounted for by three factors: (1) iron- containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust; (2) metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques; and (3) Ferrous Alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical and physical properties. The principal disadvantage of many Ferrous Alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.
eBook - PDFFundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering
An Integrated Approach
- William D. Callister, Jr., David G. Rethwisch(Authors)
- 2022(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
A taxonomic classification scheme for the various Ferrous Alloys is presented in Figure 14.1. Steels Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other al- loying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments. The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of other alloying elements. Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations. Low-Carbon Steels Of the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within the low- carbon classification. These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unre- sponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite; strengthening is accomplished plain carbon steel alloy steel Metal alloys Nonferrous Ferrous Steels Low alloy Low-carbon Plain High strength, low alloy Plain Heat treatable Plain Tool Stainless Medium-carbon High-carbon High alloy Gray iron Ductile (nodular) iron White iron Malleable iron Compacted graphite iron Cast irons FIGURE 14.1 Classification scheme for the various Ferrous Alloys. 14.2 Ferrous Alloys 631 by cold work. Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. As a conse- quence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce. Typical applications include automobile body components, struc- tural shapes (e.g., I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans.
eBook - PDFFundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering
An Integrated Approach
- William D. Callister, Jr., David G. Rethwisch(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
The principal disadvantage of many Ferrous Alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion. ferrous alloy 13.2 Ferrous Alloys • 561 This section discusses compositions, microstructures, and properties of a number of dif- ferent classes of steels and cast irons. A taxonomic classification scheme for the various Ferrous Alloys is presented in Figure 13.1. Steels Steels are iron–carbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other alloying elements; there are thousands of alloys that have different compositions and/or heat treatments. The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon, which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Some of the more common steels are classified according to carbon concentration into low-, medium-, and high-carbon types. Subclasses also exist within each group according to the concentration of other alloying elements. Plain carbon steels contain only residual concentrations of impurities other than carbon and a little manganese. For alloy steels, more alloying elements are intentionally added in specific concentrations. Low-Carbon Steels Of the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall within the low-carbon classification. These generally contain less than about 0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite; strengthening is accom- plished by cold work. Microstructures consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. As a consequence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak but have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least plain carbon steel alloy steel Metal alloys Nonferrous Ferrous Steels Low alloy Low-carbon Plain High strength, low alloy Plain Heat treatable Plain Tool Stainless Medium-carbon High-carbon High alloy Gray iron Ductile (nodular) iron White iron Malleable iron Compacted graphite iron Cast irons Figure 13.1 Classification scheme for the various Ferrous Alloys.
eBook - PDFFundamentals of Modern Manufacturing
Materials, Processes, and Systems
- Mikell P. Groover(Author)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
94 P A R T 6 6.1 Alloys and Phase Diagrams 6.1.1 Alloys 6.1.2 Phase Diagrams 6.2 Ferrous Metals 6.2.1 The Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram 6.2.2 Iron and Steel Production 6.2.3 Steels 6.2.4 Cast Irons 6.3 Nonferrous Metals 6.3.1 Aluminum and Its Alloys 6.3.2 Magnesium and Its Alloys 6.3.3 Copper and Its Alloys 6.3.4 Nickel and Its Alloys 6.3.5 Titanium and Its Alloys 6.3.6 Zinc and Its Alloys 6.3.7 Lead and Tin 6.3.8 Refractory Metals 6.3.9 Precious Metals 6.4 Superalloys Part II covers the four types of engineering materials: (1) metals, (2) ceramics, (3) polymers, and (4) composites. Metals are the most important engineering materials and the topic of this chap- ter. A metal is a category of materials generally characterized by properties of ductility, malleability, luster, and high electrical and thermal conductivity. The category includes both metallic elements and their alloys. Metals have properties that satisfy a wide variety of design requirements. The manufacturing pro- cesses by which they are shaped into products have been devel- oped and refined over many years; indeed, some of the processes date from ancient times (see Historical Note 1.2 at www.wiley .com/college/groover). In addition, the properties of metals can be enhanced through heat treatment, covered in Chapter 26. The technological and commercial importance of metals derives from the following general properties possessed by vir- tually all of the common metals: • High stiffness and strength. Metals can be alloyed for high strength, and hardness; thus, they are used to provide the structural framework for most engineered products. • Toughness. Metals have the capacity to absorb energy better than other classes of materials. Metals II ENGINEERING MATERIALS • Good electrical conductivity. Metals are conductors because of their metallic bonding that per- mits the free movement of electrons as charge carriers.
- P.E. Fisher, P.E., Lawrence W. Fisher(Authors)
- 2005(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
4 Ferrous Metals Ferrous metals are those iron-based materials which are modified for various properties using carbon and selected alloys. The classification consists of five general categories: car-bon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, tool steels, and cast iron steels ( Figure 4.1 ). The primary constituent of ferrous metals is carbon and the amount present dictates whether the mater-ial is steel or cast iron. Those with a carbon content 2% are considered steels while those with 2% are considered cast irons. Steels are produced in wrought form and then processed into stock shapes for use and can be further altered by addi-tional processing such as machining, welding, or forming. Irons are most commonly cast into net shape, requiring minimal amount of additional machining to clean up critical surfaces for final use and also into wrought forms which can be machined. These wrought forms can also be classified according to their applications and material structures, ( Figure 4.2 ). Carbon, alloy, stainless, and tool steels all have a carbon content less than 2% with their qualities are enhanced in various ways to provide the desired material properties. Carbon steel that has been alloyed with only manganese (1.65% max.), 119 copper (0.60% max.), and silicon (0.60% max.) is often referred to as plain carbon steel. It is available in three generic forms: low ( 0.25% C), medium (0.25 to 0.55% C), and high carbon ( 0.55% C) content. The presence of copper and silicon is unin-tentional and, generally, a byproduct of the foundry process, which introduces impurities originating from the wrought iron ore or the recycled scrap metals that are included. The primary difference among these materials is in their mechanical strength, which can range from 30 ksi to over 100 ksi depending on the material grade and processing methods, such as heat treatment and hot or cold roll forming.
eBook - PDFConstruction Materials, Methods, and Techniques
Building for a Sustainable Future
- Eva Kultermann, William Spence, Eva Kultermann(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Ferrous Metals L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: ● Explain the processes for mining and processing iron ore and for producing pig iron and steel. ● Develop knowledge of the properties of ferrous metals to consider when making material selection decisions. ● Be familiar with the various steel identification systems and the Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys. restricting the spans that could be achieved. The stiffness of steel enables designers to achieve much greater spans and heights than is possible in either wood or masonry construction. In engineering terms, there is almost no limit to what steel can achieve. Ferrous metals are those in which the chief ingredient is the chemical element iron (ferrum). Iron (chemical symbol Fe), mixed with other minerals, is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. To be useful, iron must be extracted from mined ore, have impurities removed and ingredients added to alter its properties, and finally be formed into usable products. Ferrous metal products are widely used in the construction industry. They are a leading construction material, and archi- tects, engineers, and contractors should be familiar with the various types available, their properties, and the proper appli- cations for each. Although a ferrous metal product can fail, this usually does not occur because it is a poor material but rather because the type of ferrous metal chosen for a particular appli- cation was incorrect. When the properties of a ferrous metal are known, its performance can be accurately determined during the engineering design process. IRON Iron is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. Pure iron, free from impurities and other elements, is ductile and soft but generally not strong enough for structural purposes. It has good magnetic properties but oxidizes (rusts) easily and does not resist attack by acids and some chemicals.
- J. T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser(Authors)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
We see them everywhere in our lives—in the buildings where we work, the cars we drive, the homes in which we live, the cans we open, and the appliances that enhance our standard of living. Numer- ous varieties have been developed over the years to meet the specific needs of various industries. These developments and improvements have continued, with recent decades seeing the introduction of a number of new varieties and even classes of ferrous metals. According to the American Iron and Steel Insti- tute, the number of available grades of steel has doubled since 2000. The newer steels are stronger than ever, rolled thinner, Ferrous Metals and Alloys Cast Irons Plain-Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Gray Irons Low-Carbon Low-Alloy Steels Malleable Iron Medium-Carbon HSLA Steels Ductile Iron High-Carbon Advanced High-Strength Steels Compacted Graphite Iron Maraging Steels Microalloyed Steels Austempered Ductile Iron Stainless Steels White Iron Tool Steels Ferrous Metal Alloys FIGURE 6.1 Classification of common ferrous metals and alloys. 88 CHAPTER 6 Ferrous Metals and Alloys easier to shape, and more corrosion resistant. As a result, steel still accounts for more than half of the metal used in an average vehicle in North America. In addition, all steel is recyclable, and this recycling does not involve any loss in material quality. In fact, more steel is recycled each year than all other materials combined, including aluminum, glass, plastic, and paper. Because steel is magnetic, it is easily separated and recovered from demol- ished buildings, junked automobiles, and discarded appli- ances. The overall recycling rate for steel is approximately 88%–92.5% for automobiles, 90% for appliances, and 72% for steel packaging. Structural beams and plates are the most recycled products at 97.5%.
- J. T. Black, Ronald A. Kohser(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
These materials made possible the Industrial Revolution 150 years ago, and they continue to be the backbone of modern civilization. We see them everywhere in our lives—in the buildings where we work, the cars we drive, the homes in which we live, the cans we open, and the appliances that enhance our standard of living. Numerous varieties have been developed over the years Cast Irons Plain-Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Gray Irons Low-Carbon Low-Alloy Steels Malleable Iron Medium-Carbon HSLA Steels Ductile Iron High-Carbon Advanced High-Strength Steels Compacted Graphite Iron Maraging Steels Microalloyed Steels Austempered Ductile Iron Stainless Steels White Iron Tool Steels Ferrous Metal Alloys FIGURE 6.1 | Classification of common ferrous metals and alloys. Ferrous Metals and Alloys C H A P T E R 102 CHAPTER 6 Ferrous Metals and Alloys to meet the specific needs of various industries. These devel- opments and improvements have continued, with recent decades seeing the introduction of a number of new varie- ties and even classes of ferrous metals. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute, the number of available grades of steel has doubled since 2000. The newer steels are stronger than ever, rolled thinner, easier to shape, and more corrosion resistant. As a result, steel still accounts for more than half of the metal used in an average vehicle in North America. In addition, all steel is recyclable, and this recycling does not involve any loss in material quality. In fact, more steel is recycled each year than all other materials combined, includ- ing aluminum, glass, plastic, and paper. Because steel is mag- netic, it is easily separated and recovered from demolished buildings, junked automobiles, and discarded appliances. The overall recycling rate for steel is approximately 88%–92.5% for automobiles, 90% for appliances, and 72% for steel packaging. Structural beams and plates are the most recycled products at 97.5%.
eBook - PDFEngineering Materials
Research, Applications and Advances
- K.M. Gupta(Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
Alloys may also be used instead of metals to make composites. One of the constituents (called reinforcing constituent) may be in particulate form, fibrous form or flake form. Fibrous composites are more common in present-day applications. Whisker-reinforced composites are likely to be the future material. 4 Engineering Materials: Research, Applications and Advances 1.2.7 Classified Groups of Materials and Their Examples and Uses To illustrate the importance of materials, various groups of materials with examples and uses are summarized in Table 1.2. 1.3 Scale of Materials and Size of Devices There are different levels of material structure that vary from the bulk size dimensions of metre to mm and down to 10 −8 m or less. These are macro level (10 −4 to 10 −6 m), sub-micro level (10 −6 to 10 −8 m), crystal level (10 −8 to 10 −10 m), electronic level (10 −10 to 10 −12 m), nuclear level (10 −12 to 10 −15 m) materials, etc. Based on dimensions of these levels, the technology and devices involved are generally called as follows: • Macro technology which is of the order of 10 0 to 10 −3 m or more. Devices of these scales are known as macro or bulk devices such as brute machinery, genetics and heavy machineries. • Microtechnology which is of order of 10 −3 to 10 −6 m. Devices of these scales are known as micro devices such as ICs and microbots. TABLE 1.2 Classified Groups of Materials with Examples and Uses S. No. Group of Materials Examples Uses 1. Ferrous metals Iron and steel Structures, machines, alloy-making tools 2. Non-ferrous metals Cu, Al, Si, Sb, Co Conductors, semiconductors 3. Ferrous Alloys Invar, stainless steel, alnico, high-speed steel (HSS) Precision measuring tapes, magnets, cutting tools 4. Non-Ferrous Alloys Phosphor bronze, brass, duralumin, babbits Bushes of bearings, springs, utensils 5. Ceramics ZrO 2 , SiO 2 , B 2 O 3 , Na 2 O, A1 2 O 3 , glasses Refractories, furnace linings, lens 6.
eBook - PDF- George Murray, Charles V. White, Wolfgang Weise(Authors)
- 2007(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
As in the case of the malleable iron, the matrix can be ferritic, pearlitic, or martensitic, depending on the heat-treatment process. The most common form is that shown in Figure 16.9c, in which the graphite nodules are surrounded by white ferrite, all in a pearlite matrix. From the brief presentation above, one can see that cast iron metallurgy is just as varied and complex as that of steels. By understanding the Fe–Fe 3 C phase diagrams and the associated heat treatments, it is relatively easy to comprehend the processing of cast irons. The nonmaterials engineer, however, is more inter-ested in properties than in processing. The properties and some applications are summarized in Table 16.7. The nonmaterials engineer, by being familiar with the microstructures, has a better understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of the variety of cast irons available. In recent years an austempered ductile iron has appeared on the market that can have a matrix varying from ferrite, to ferrite plus pearlite, to pearlite, to bainite, and even to martensite, depending on the austempering heat-treatment cycle. Yield strengths can vary from 550 to 1300 MPa (80 to 188 ksi) and elongations from 1 to 10%. It has excellent wear properties and is used for gears, crankshafts, chain sprockets, and high-impact and high-fatigue applications. 16.5 ALUMINUM ALLOYS Aluminum ranks second in global metal usage. Its principal advantage is its low density (about one-third that of steel) and high corrosion resistance. The use of aluminum in automobile and truck manufacturing has seen a significant increase as car makers strive to make more fuel-efficient vehicles. Aluminum is used in both a cast and wrought form, exhibiting high strength and ductility in both. In the aluminum–aluminum alloy system’s properties are commonly managed in three basic formats: 1. Alloy additions are used to increase the properties of the aluminum by solid solution strengthening.
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