In one of our favorite Monty Python skits, a man, played by Michael Palin, enters a clinic and explains to the receptionist that he would like to pay for a 5-minute argument. The receptionist directs him to a room down the hallway. When he enters the room, he finds another man, played by John Cleese, sitting at a desk.
āAh, is this the right room for an argument?ā Palinās character asks.
Cleeseās character brusquely responds, āIāve told you once.ā
āNo, you havenāt,ā says Palin.
āYes, I have,ā replies Cleese.
The back and forth continues for a few more seconds as Palinās character becomes increasingly frustrated and eventually proclaims, āLook, this isnāt an argument! Itās just contradiction.ā
Cleeseās character answers, āNo, it isnāt.ā
As the repartee continues, it evolves into an argument about the very definition of argument. Palinās character asserts, āAn argumentās not the same as contradiction.ā
Cleeseās character rebuts, āWell, it can be.ā
āAn argument is a connected series of statements to establish a definite proposition,ā Palinās character continues.
Cleeseās character ripostes, āLook, if I argue with you, I must take up a contrary position.ā
Palinās character elaborates his position further. āArgument is an intellectual process. Contradiction is just the automatic gainsaying of anything the other person says.ā
Just as time runs out, Cleeseās character offers up a final rebuttal, āNo, it isnāt.ā
We sometimes show this clip to our students and ask them to evaluate the quality of the argument that takes place between the two characters. Their responses vary, but for the most part what we find is that their understanding of argument is most closely reflected in the attitude of Cleeseās character. They generally think of argument as an analog for debate or disagreement. While we certainly agree that debate and disagreement can sometimes be very effective classroom tools, we also try to honor the position that Palinās character emphasizes: Argument is not just debate and disagreement. Itās a processāan intellectual process, a social process, a cultural process. Argument is reasoning. Argument is literacy.
Consider This
Think of five different arguments youāve seen on TV or in movies. You might consider legal arguments from courtroom dramas, political debates on news shows, family disputes on sitcoms, or disagreements among co-workers. How are arguments typically portrayed in popular culture? Do they reflect the points of view of both characters from the Monty Python skit?
Luckily, weāre not alone in our appreciation for the value of argument. In recent years, literacy scholars have taken up the importance of argument as the basis for quality instruction in classrooms spanning grade levels and subject areas. Michael has previously written about the usefulness of argument as a way to address the Common Core State Standards for Language Arts (Smith, Wilhelm, & Fredricksen, 2012). Jon-Philip has designed and implemented an entire curriculum for college-bound high school students that is based on argument (Imbrenda, in press). Since the focus of this book is on providing teachers with ready-to-use lessons and activities, weāre not going to get into a lengthy review of all the literature around the role of argument in secondary classrooms. Instead, we want to highlight and discuss briefly three primary reasons for teaching argument to all our students:
Argument Cultivates Critical Thinking
We make arguments every day of our lives. Whether weāre choosing the best restaurant to eat at, the right smartphone to buy, or the podcasts we want to listen to on our commutes to work, weāre taking into account many different factors and making a judgment based on how we evaluate those factors. We probably wouldnāt refer to these everyday situations as examples of critical thinking. Most of the time these arguments take place internally, and the thought processes involved happen so fast weāre barely aware of them.
Yet we probably all know a few people who seem to go a step further when it comes to certain kinds of everyday decisions. People who are very tech-savvy and carefully compare products based on complex hardware specifications. People who are particularly mindful of the nutritional quality of the foods they eat. People who are keenly discerning about the kinds of media they choose to consume. Theyāre the people whom we go to for suggestions when weāre not so sure what we want. Jon-Philipās brother, an engineer, spent nearly 2 months doing research before he purchased a new laptop. He compared dozens of pre-built models and even went a step further in comparing the specific components inside those pre-built models to decide if he wanted to go ahead and build one himself. His comparisons were richly informed by his expertise in the field of electrical engineering and by his understanding of the exact things he needed his laptop to be able to do effectively. We might be more inclined to refer to his decision-making process as an example of critical thinking because we have a clear sense of how his decision was influenced by information available to him and the deep knowledge needed to understand and interpret that information. In fact, part of what makes so-called critical thinking different from just plain old thinking is that critical thinking requires that we have some degree of awareness of whatās happening when we make decisions, consider evidence, generate interpretations, and act upon our judgments. Critical thinking is about getting beyond āHereās what I think,ā and into the realm of āHereās what I think. Hereās what makes me think that. And hereās why it matters.ā In this respect, we agree with Michaelās mentor, George Hillocks, when he argues that the kind of critical thinking we often champion as an essential goal of education is, in fact, sound argumentation (Hillocks, 2010). Simply put, thinking critically and arguing effectively are the same thing!
When we shift the focus of our instruction onto argumentation through lessons like the ones in this book, and give our students frequent opportunities to build arguments across a variety of situations, weāre cultivating the kind of explicit awareness of their own thinking that characterizes Jon-Philipās brotherās meticulous efforts to select the best laptop computer. Weāre helping them to move beyond their tacit judgments and into the deeper and often much more complex inner workings of those judgments. If we do so over time, we help our students become flexible and strategic in their academic lives. This kind of thinking becomes a habit, and with encouragement, they are able to transfer their new skills to the reading, writing, and range of other tasks they are frequently expected to carry out for school. We hope that the lessons and tools we present in this book will serve as good examples of how argumentation cultivates the kind of critical thinking we want our students to engage in on a regular basis in our classroomsāand will provide practice for your students to do the same. Our lessons are designed to teach students to carefully consider the knowledge and information available to them, while providing them with questions that are relevant to their lives both inside and outside of the classroom.
Consider This
While teachers widely agree that critical thinking is an important goal of learning, there is not always as much agreement around what we mean by the term critical thinking. What are your criteria for critical thinking in your classroom? How do your criteria compare with our criteria of thinking that involve explicit awareness of how we consider evidence, generate interpretations, and make judgments?
Argument Fosters Collaborative Reasoning
Much of what we just discussed in the previous section reflects fairly common understandings about the value of argument as in the development of individual learners. However, an equally valuable yet frequently overlooked aspect of argumentation is its inherently social nature. Newell and his colleagues (2011) proclaim the benefits of argument as a social practice carried out by groups of people across many different contexts as opposed to viewing it only as a reflection of an individualās cognitive ability. Such benefits are particularly important for us as educators to understand, as research has shown that the kinds of collaborative reasoning that characterize socially directed arguments can become powerful contributors to deep and meaningful learning (Clark et al., 2003; Nussbaum, 2008). Recognizing argument as a social practice helps us get beyond debate and disagreement and into the kinds of collaborative conversations that impact the world in important ways.
As a social practice, argument is paramount to the cooperative efforts of professionals in many fields. For example, Hagler and Brem (2008) examined the ways that professional nurses in critical care environments relied on argumentative reasoning to provide care for people with very serious medical conditions. Through ongoing series of polite informal exchanges of both information and interpretations of that information, nurses were able to combine their knowledge and expertise when reaching agreements about how to handle specific patients. This study is but one of many instances in which argumentative reasoning is shown to be central to the kinds of collaboration involved in peopleās professional lives.