Social Sustainability

A Multilevel Approach to Social Inclusion

Veronica Dujon, Jesse Dillard, Eileen M. Brennan, Veronica Dujon, Jesse Dillard, Eileen M. Brennan

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2013
• ISBN:
  9781135013080
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Economia
• Subtopic: Sviluppo sostenibile

How can we raise the standard of living of the world's poor and maintain high levels of social health and well-being in the developed world, while simultaneously reducing the environmental damage wrought by human activity? The social dimension of sustainability is becoming recognized as a necessary if not sufficient condition for attaining economic and environmental sustainability. The requisite dialogue requires inclusion at multi-levels. This collection of works is an ambitious and multi-disciplinary effort to indemnify and articulate the design, implementation and implications of inclusion. Included are theoretical and empirical pieces that examine the related issues at the local, national and international levels. Contributors are grounded in Sociology, Economics, Business Administration, Public Administration, Public Health, Psychology, Anthropology, Social Work, Education, and Natural Resource Management.

1 Introduction to Social Sustainability

A Multilevel Approach to Social Inclusion

Jesse Dillard, Veronica Dujon, and Eileen M. Brennan

There is growing interest among both practitioners and academics in the social aspects of sustainability and examining its conceptual applications at various levels and in various contexts. While it is often said that sustainability comprises three elements—environmental, economic, and social—the social dimension seems most nebulous and generally less well focused (Cuthill, 2010; Dillard, Dujon, & King, 2009; Kunz, 2006; Littig & Griessler, 2005; Manzi, Lucas, Lloyd Jones, & Allen, 2010). However, social sustainability is central as we struggle to improve the human condition within the context of regenerative and renewable natural systems (Boström, 2012; McKenzie, 2004).

The continuing world financial crisis highlights the close interrelationship between the social and environmental aspects of sustainability. The social world of global market capitalism and the physical world are inextricably intertwined. The social, especially as manifested in “the market,” has taken precedence over the physical. We find ourselves struggling to meet basic human needs in some contexts even as we stimulate excessive and unsustainable consumption in others. These economic pressures, while providing an opportunity to rein in unsustainable consumption and debt, are placing an even greater burden on the natural and social systems as environmental enhancements and safeguards are postponed or abandoned in the name of economic expediency (Tienhaara, 2010). How do we transform our thinking, our conceptualizations concerning poverty and environmental degradation, for example?

Additionally, the financial crisis that shook the world economy at the end of the last decade illustrates the connections between social inclusion and environmental, economic, and social sustainability. Leichenko, O'Brien, and Solecki (2010) show that exposure to climate change combined with the financial crisis has greatly increased the social vulnerability of at-risk populations. Discriminatory policies and practices directed at racial and ethnic groups imposed substantial disadvantages in the terms and conditions under which they could access economic resources, and thus power to exert influence over their well-being (Soska, Teixeira, Legault, Crawford, & Hardoby, 2011). Further, Dymski (2010) argues that in the United States the confluence of changes in banking practices in financial markets coupled with racially biased processing procedures not only facilitated the subprime lending crisis, but also highlighted the social inequities that culminated in an acceleration of the gap between the wealthy and members of certain racial and ethnic groups.

Initially, sustainability related primarily to natural systems. Currently, there is an increasing propensity to integrate social concerns into the pursuit of sustainability (Barron & Gauntlett, 2002; Benner & Pastor, 2012; Carpenter & Turró, 2008; Cuthill, 2010; Dempsey, Bramley, Power, & Brown, 2011; Harris &Goodwin, 2001; Holden, 2012, Magis, 2010). The collaborative efforts of faculty, students, and community experts now have begun to focus on understanding the social dimension of sustainability, providing insights through a variety of perspectives (Dillard, et al., 2009). Here we extend the understanding of the social aspects of sustainability by exploring the relevance and applicability of social inclusion. We argue that social inclusion will result in more socially sustainable processes, yielding collectively higher levels of societal well-being.

Previously, we developed a working definition of the social aspect of sustainability to include both the processes that generate social health and well-being now and in the future and the social institutions that facilitate environmental and economic sustainability now and in the future (Dillard et al., 2009). Here, we continue to work within the context of this general conceptualization and emphasize the processes and outcomes associated with social inclusion. Social inclusion represents the opportunity, and resources necessary, to participate in economic, social, and cultural activities that are considered the social norms as individuals, communities, and/or societies respond to environmental, economic, and social change (Abrams, Hogg, & Marques, 2004). All affected should have effective and affective input into those things that impact them, which entails the ability to comprehend and effectively respond within the extant and anticipated constellations of social and economic power.

As we observe the social sustainability initiatives, programs, and policies undertaken by such diverse groups as governments, non-governmental organizations, and businesses, the lack of inclusive and informed participation at multiple levels retards the effectiveness of the efforts. Alternative voices are marginalized or overlooked in the quest for “sustainability” (a fulfilling present and a renewable and regenerative future). In contrast, Sen (1999, 2009) argues that the purpose of development initiatives should be to provide opportunities for people to develop capabilities to recognize and do the things that they value. Community engagement represents the foundation upon which the success of these development efforts is built, by providing a forum for community members to recognize and articulate the opportunities that they value and will work to attain (Ling, Hanna, & Dale, 2009). Increasingly, sustainable development is associated with, and seen as dependent upon, equity and community engagement (Borrini-Feyerabend, Kothari, & Oviedo, 2004; Cuthill, 2010; Magis & Shinn, 2009; United Nations, 2007.) In addition, for environmental sustainability strategies to be effectively implemented, community inclusion is a prerequisite. The processes and institutions that facilitate sustainability reflect the understanding of those who design and implement them. The less inclusivity in the design and implementation of these institutions and the associated processes, the less likely they are to achieve their anticipated objectives, and the more potential they have to contribute to environmental injustice (Bullard, Johnson, & Torres, 2005).

In line with the growing interest in social sustainability in general, there has been a substantial increase in research, teaching, and practitioner engagement related to social sustainability issues and mechanisms. One important aspect of social sustainability is the manner in which governments, organizations, and citizens address and discharge duties of accountability to a range of stakeholders regarding the social and environmental impact of development efforts. The recognition and expansion of civil, governmental, and managerial interest in social sustainability has been reflected in a growing number of undergraduate and postgraduate business and management courses, which now include elements of social sustainability in their curriculum, even though the area may not be identified as such. Disciplines such as economics, sociology, anthropology, psychology, public administration, education, social work, and business are acknowledging the interrelatedness of the social with the environmental, and the traditional environmental disciplines such as engineering, applied sciences, and agriculture are recognizing the implications of the social in relation to the environment. The international growth of practitioner and teaching interest in social sustainability is also mirrored in a substantial rise in academic scholarship recognizing and integrating social sustainability into conceptual frameworks and practice research (Boström, 2012; Manzi et al., 2010; Schlossberg & Zimmerman, 2003; Sharma & Ruud, 2003). Several universities have research centers with a focus on the social dimension of sustainability, for example, the Australian Center for Sustainable Business and Development at the University of Southern Queensland, the Research Center for Sustainability Studies of the University of Bremen, Germany, and the Institute for Sustainable Solutions at Portland State University, United States.

Our objective in this volume is to continue to delineate the social aspect of sustainability and to address key issues associated with multilevel perspectives and inclusion as primary tenets for understanding, expanding, and achieving social sustainability. Our conceptualization of the social aspect of sustainability as both the processes that generate social health and well-being now and in the future and those social institutions that facilitate environmental and economic sustainability now and for the future provides the general context for our multilevel analysis of inclusion. Within this context, we explore the meaning and application of the social aspect of sustainability from a number of perspectives but generally with a conceptual focus on social inclusion. These perspectives include theoretical development, case studies, and policy and practice applications both in the First and Third Worlds. The applications range from considering the implications for social business enterprise in challenging economic times; the intimate connection between social sustainability and disparity reduction in human services fields; identifying and improving the social determinants of health; to identifying the ways in which social sustainability is developed under extreme conditions of deprivation such as in Zimbabwe, or ignored under extreme conditions of wealth such as in the oil sands of Canada; to individual and comparative studies that recognize the different ways of knowing in indigenous cultures.

Overall we take a multilevel approach to understand the issues and to identify potential solutions. This is a conscious and strategic choice driven by growing awareness from discussion across our disciplines that the search for appropriate solutions can, and should, have multiple and intersecting trajectories. Contributions generally focus on one of the several levels of analysis. For example, at the individual level recognizing and understanding indigenous peoples’ perspectives helps to integrate both the cultural and social with the natural environment in which we live. At the community level, collective understanding is facilitated by, and facilitates, inclusion of traditionally excluded or marginalized groups or ideas. At the regional level, collectives interface with, and must learn to cope with, and influence, institutional infrastructure such as the state or markets in pursuing social and environmental sustainability. The national level extends the regional level in that it is concerned with institutions that promote social inclusion and equity, a necessary condition for social sustainability. Finally, the international level concerns the influence of multinational economic entities and their effect on global environmental and social sustainability.

The concepts that circumscribe and facilitate social sustainability are developing within the related disciplines. Here, we attempt to understand the area; analyze its connections to social inclusion; and consider applications in both theory and practice. Dealing with the moral and ethical responsibilities of societies, organizations, and individuals is a highly politicized arena where both academics and practitioners can hold strongly divergent views on the necessity or desirability of certain practices, particularly those that involve including traditionally excluded groups. The following studies provide a mix of both theoretical and practical insights from a variety of standpoints expanding the field of social sustainability.

This volume is the outgrowth of the efforts of faculty, students, and community practitioners here at Portland State University as we have worked together in an attempt to better understand the social aspects of sustainability. Here, we attempt to investigate and operationalize a multilevel approach to social inclusion. We have chosen this perspective because of our conviction that multilevel involvement is a necessary, though not sufficient, condition for successful programs at the local, regional, national, and international levels.

The following chapters take a multidisciplinary perspective in exploring a diverse range of topics that apply multilevel perspectives in articulating and investigating social inclusion as an integral aspect of social sustainability. We see the insights provided as useful building blocks for further efforts. Our objective is to engage in, and hopefully contribute to, the associated conversation. A great deal remains to be done.

In summary, following from our working definitions of social sustainability and inclusion, we explore the meaning and application of inclusion as a multilevel approach to the social aspect of sustainability. The works presented herein include theoretical development, empirical research approaches, and policy applications associated with inclusion in both the developed and developing worlds. The remainder of the book is divided into three sections: Inclusion in the economic sector; inclusion in the pursuit of community health and well-being; and inclusion in community resources and resilience. The contributions of each of the chapters are reviewed below.

PART I: THE ECONOMIC SECTOR

Part I addresses applications and implications of inclusion in the economic sector. The four chapters consider alternative business models or policies for addressing social sustainability within a competitive market context. The chapters describe implications associated with the lack of social inclusion and consider the consequences for regulation in addressing the deficiencies identified.

The authors of Chapter 2, “Social Business Enterprise: A Necessary Alternative,” Jesse Dillard, Mellie Pullman, Joshua Bernard, and Aaron Scarborough consider social business enterprise as a necessary alternative to traditional funding models. Within the context of the current financial crisis, social organizations have to compete more vigorously for the resources necessary to pursue their social objectives. One way to address this problem is to engage in commercial or market-based activities as a means for generating adequate resource flows. The authors consider several alternatives in a viable set of general types of “business models” that might be used by a social business enterprise, and they propose and illustrate a theoretical framework whereby social values can be translated into plans, operating processes and procedures, and performance evaluation systems enhancing the possibilities for acquiring adequate resources, supporting the core social values, and achieving the desired social objectives.

In Chapter 3, “Social Sustainability and the Oil Sands Industry: Life in the Middle of Wealth but on the Margins of Well-Being,” Veronica Dujon examines community life in the oil sands regions of northern Alberta, Canada, and describes the ways in which the technological sophistication of production at this remote location is reflected in the social disorganization and cultural profile of the site. In particular the discussion illustrates how workers’ well-being is marginalized in an increasingly economically lucrative, but environmentally destructive sector. The chapter offers a sociological perspective on how capitalist models of growth define global oil extraction regimes that drive unsustainable environmental and social conditions in a specific location within a larger wealthy country in which citizens are very aware of the adverse environmental consequences. It examines consumption of that energy by an international market and the structural difficulties in pursuing an alternative path. It offers a critical perspective on why the well-being of the people living at the site, and the conditions that generate a socially unsustainable community, have received only a fraction of the attention the economic and environmental concerns have. The chapter concludes with a critical comparison of this experience and earlier periods of resource extraction in which the welfare of workers, residents, and the environment were exploited in the interest of economic development, and highlights lessons that might be learned.

Keith James, Adam Murry, and Desirée Pacheco investigate the relationship between organizational and community sustainability in Chapter 4, “Strong Communities: Integrating Environmental, Economic, and Social Sustainability.” The authors argue that environmentally focused analyses of sustainability have concluded that issues of the physical environment are interwoven with both social and economic issues, and must be examined together (e.g., Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, 2004; Polèse & Stren, 2000; World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). As James, Smith, and Doppelt (2007) have pointed out, the centrality of social issues is particularly salient when long-range sustainability issues are pitted against short-range economic gains. In this chapter the authors offer a theoretical model that ties individual environmental values and identities to the development of environmentally responsible communities, organizations, a...