PART I
Introduction
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Man is a singular creature. He has a set of gifts which make him unique among animals: so that, unlike them, he is not a figure in the landscapeāhe is a shaper of the landscape.
āJacob Bronowski
For thousands of generations, people have modified the landscape to improve their access to resources, security, and comfort (Redman 1999; Diamond 2005; Mann 2011). Over the course of human history, people have increased their ability to shape the landscape to meet their needs and aspirations. But the landscape, having evolved over millions of years, has developed into a complex of interrelationships we have yet to fully comprehend and, as a result, to control. Today we have reached a point at which our power to change the landscape often exceeds our ability to understand and predict all the consequences of those changes. By accident as well as design, human activity has become the primary agent of change in the global landscape (Silver et al. 1990, 50; Union of Concerned Scientists 1992; Suzuki et al. 2004, 71).
Design is our way of guiding change in the landscape to improve the human condition (Rapoport 2005). Landscape architects do this through the creation of places such as gardens, parks, campuses, greenways, and neighborhoods. Theory provides the basis for designing well; to bring about successful change in the landscape. The purpose of theory is to determine what constitutes success in design results and to inform the design process as a useful and successful enterprise. Theory not only provides the evidence on which effective landscape change may be based, it also describes the means for bringing it about and furnishes the metrics for evaluating the quality of the environments that are created. The basic aims of theory are to understand the landscape and how it functions, to determine the conditions to be created through design innovation, and to identify the means to realize them. Three questions frame the investigation:
- How can the quality of human life be improved by design?
- How can the quality of the environment be improved by design?
- What knowledge and skills are required to facilitate these conditions?
Many factors are considered in design: the intentions of clients; the needs and expectations of those who are to use the designed setting; how the interactions between users and setting will create situations to be resolved or opportunities to be exploited; the materials of designāin this case, the landscape itselfāand finally, the processes of decision making and creative expression as they influence design outcomes.
From an ecological perspective, context is critical to understanding. This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of some of the issues that influence our understanding and design of the landscape and provides context for the material to follow. Subsequent chapters describe a series of knowledge areas and their underlying values that inspire the changes we impose on the landscape, inform our reasons for doing so, and guide us in reaching design decisions based on a foundation of reliable evidence.
The designerās role is to āreimagine and remake the human presence on Earth in ways that work over the long haulā (Orr 2002, 3). In the past, designs by landscape architects were intended to be functional and beautiful and inspiring. In the future, they must also be restorative, life sustaining, and regenerativeāfor people as well as for landscapes.
Further, technological innovation represents a growing influence on how we design and develop the landscape. But our primary theoretical concern with technology is to assure that this powerful tool is applied wisely: that it is used not to do the same things more efficiently, but to bring us to a clearer understanding of how to do things better, while consuming and impacting less. The role of technology is to support the intentions of design without interfering with the artistry of design.
The material presented here is a recent history, not of the works of landscape architecture or of their creators, but of the knowledge and ideas that have guided their understanding of the landscape in their efforts to change and improve it. Our first aim, then, is to establish the context for design as a practical and theoretical pursuit.
Landscape Architecture
The term landscape architecture was coined by Gilbert Laing Meason in his 1828 book On the Landscape Architecture of the Great Painters in Italy, and landscape architect was first used as a professional title by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in connection with their work on New Yorkās Central Park in the mid-nineteenth century, after Olmsted found that his title as architect-in-chief was unsatisfactory in describing their role (Twombly 2010, 24). The term came into general use after the formation of the American Society of Landscape Architects in 1899. Today there are many ways to define landscape architecture. The description provided here is intended to be inclusive of a broad range of practice and research areas shared by most practitioners and academics.
Landscape architecture is the design discipline dedicated to understanding and shaping the landscape. As a profession, it provides site planning, design, and management advice to improve the character, quality, and experience of the landscape, typically as a setting for human activities. The purpose of landscape design is twofold: to guide change in the form of the landscape to create and sustain useful, healthful, and engaging built and natural environments; and to protect and enhance the landscapeās intrinsic cultural, ecological, and experiential qualities.
The primary role of landscape architecture is to organize the complexity of the landscape into comprehensible, productive, and beautiful places to improve the function, health, and experience of life. To do this effectively, design practitioners need to understand the landscape and the ways people interact with it, and to apply effective design process and implementation methods.
Attending the dynamics of human development is the challenge to continually re-form the landscape to better accommodate peopleās evolving requirements. These requirements include the provision of needed resources, space for activities, satisfaction and appreciation of the physical setting, enhancement and preservation of environmental and human health, and the creation and expression of cultural and environmental sense of place. To achieve these multiple, often-competing objectives, designers need a clear understanding of human and environmental processes and the ways they interact to shape the landscape we experience and rely on. To understand these processes, designers also need to be aware of the considerations that influence the way we comprehend and interpret the world around us.
Figure 1ā1. Central Park in New York, an artificially created landscape established in 1857 by designers Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux. (Source: Francisco Diez via Wikimedia Commons.)
Values
Our values shape the way we define the landscape and influence the actions we take to change or protect it. Values are the ideals or principles we consider important in our lives, the ideas that give purpose and meaning to our thoughts and actions (Rokeach 1973). They are qualities that society considers worthwhile as ends in themselvesāsuch as liberty, truth, and justiceāthat form the basis of our customs and institutions. Judgments about ethical behavior are a manifestation of values (Snow et al. 2000). Values are based on the comparative worth we ascribe to things, whether tangible or intangible.
In general, the values of landscape architecture lie in three broad areas: aesthetic, ecological, and social (Thompson 2000). Landscape architecture is committed to enhancing human experience, sustaining environmental quality, and establishing social equity. Just as importantly, landscape architecture values the spiritually satisfying and psychologically health-giving benefits of peopleās harmonious relationships with one another and with their environment. More than anything else, landscape architecture values a holistic approach to addressing utility, beauty, and health as complementary, not competing interests.
Aesthetic values refer to the quality of the human experience and the extent to which that experience brings sensual and emotional pleasure and satisfaction. The goal of social equity implies that the role of the designer is to speak on behalf of the users of designed settingsāin particular the young, the elderly, or the infirmāand for the health and stability of the ecological and cultural environment in which human activity occurs and on which human existence depends (Beatley 1994; Enlow 2006). Social justice and equity are at the heart of what landscape architects do and why they do it; in fact, social good is the purpose of professional licensure: the protection of public health, safety, and welfare. Designersā responsibilities lie as much with the public good as with that of private clients since, in addition to safeguarding the general public, protecting the welfare of users and the environment is the best way of protecting the long-term interests of the custodians of the landscape: clients, both present and future, who own or exercise control of the landscape.
Control of the landscape for survival and prosperity is a universal concept. The concept of territoriality and the domination of space and resources is widely observed in nature and well documented for all forms of life as a way of defining the individual and organizing the group to assure survival (Ardrey 1966; Hall 1966; Altman 1975). The landscape is more often considered, and valued, as property, territory to be owned, than as an environment that we collectively inhabit, and for which we have a shared responsibility (Gintis 2007).
Values influence our understanding of the landscape and shape our attitudes toward it, and hence, they inform our collective thinking and behavior. Our values shape our vision and guide our decisions about the landscape and what we wish to achieve by its design and development. The quality and character of the shared landscape is a direct reflection of prevailing values and attitudes. One of our most prevalent attitudes is that the landscape is a commodity.
Commodity
We are consumers of land and resources as well as products. In good economic times and bad, society pursues a model of ever-increasing production and consumption as the driver of an expanding economy. A prevailing attitude toward the environment is that it is a resource to be exploited for maximum human benefit in the shortest possible time (Redman 1999). The landscape is considered important primarily because it is a commodity that can be exchanged in the marketplace as the source of raw materials from which products can be manufactured. Unfortunately, this socioeconomic system of continuing growth and expansion has not yet developed a means of conserving or expanding the resources to be exploited as demand increases, or of reincorporating expended materials back into the landscape for reuse with the effectiveness that we find in ecological systems.
Social systems are commonly viewed as separate from ecological systems. This is relevant to landscape architecture theory because it helps us to understand how we as a society value the landscape, as it is our values that shape decisions about how we regard, design, and use it. As will be described below, our relationships with the landscape are reciprocal, not one-way. Ecosystems function cyclically, revealing that a one-way extraction of materialsātreating the land as commodity onlyāis antithetical to the health of the ecosystem on which our health depends.
A half century ago, conservationist Aldo Leopold envisioned a land ethic whereby mankind, owing to its superior intellectual capacity, serves as a steward in addition to functioning as an integral part of the larger system of the landscape, which, he believed, included geology, climate, and other organisms living in harmony: an ecological community (Leopold 1966).
But it is difficult to hold the view that we possess land and, at the same time, to conceive ourselves as being a part of it, a component of the ecological community. In our collective view, it is almost unthinkable that we would belong to the land rather than the other way around. For the most part, we define land as a commodity belonging to individuals (Lahde 1982). Land defined as āpropertyā has āvalue,ā and land without economic benefit is āvalueless.ā Our intellectual relationship to the landscape is often better characterized as domination than as stewardship.
These issues raise fundamental questions: Where does the landscape fit in this paradigm of determining whether land has value or not? Does it have value to us in any context other than economic? Do we consider the landscape to have intrinsic value, or is its value only utilitarian when it has been subdivided and transformed into property? If it has value, can we enhance and protect the value of the landscape through design? Do designersāas shapers of the landscapeāhave a responsibility to the landscape, or only to those who own or occupy it, the people we call āclientsā and āusersā?
These questions are central to an examination of landscape architecture theory because they enable us to consider the status quo and question whether it is structured to promote or obstruct design innovation. As society evolves, the answers change. In the search for design theory, it may not be the destination but the journey that is most important to understanding.
Finally, it is helpful to understand that things placed in the environment stay thereāsomewhere. For example, wastesāthings without valueāare either reincorporated into the system, or, if they are materials that have no history of reintegration, they remain in the system, no longer contributing to landscape function but interfering with it.
Thus, it is imperative that we understand the environment we wish to improve as an ever-changing whole in order to determine which of its aspects are relevant to the outcomes we intend when its features or processes are rearranged by design. Although often conceived as a commodity, the landscape is, more importantly, a process and a place that, by design, is either enhanced or diminished.
Landscape
Another consideration is to define what is meant by landscape. The traditional definition of landscape is an area of the Earthās surface that has been modified by hu...